mm 


FREDERIC    WILLIAM    LINGER 

Formerly  War  Correspondent,  of  the  "  London  Times"  and  also  of  the  "  Daily  Express 
in  South  Africa,  and  the  author  of  "  With  Bobs  and  Kruger." 


> 


RUSSIA^cJAPAN 


AND  A  COMPLETE 
HISTORY   OF    THE 


#  WAR  IN  THE  FAR  EAST  « 


=BY= 

FREDERIC  WILLIAM  UNGER 

War  Correspondent  and  Author  of 
"WITH  BOBS  AND  KRUOER,"  Etc. 

ASSISTED  BY 

CHARLES  MORRIS,  LL.D. 

Author  of 
"THE  ARYAN  RACE,"  "THE  GREATER  REPUBLIC."  Btc. 


Profusely  Illustrated  by   Half-tone 
Engravings  and  Special  Artists'  Drawings 


ENTERED  ACCORDING  TO  ACT  OF 
CONGRESS  IN  THE  YEAR  1904  BY 
W.  E.  SCULL,  IN  THE  OFFICE 
OF  THE  LIBRARIAN  OF  CONGRESS, 
AT  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

ALL    RIGHTS   RESERVED 


The  Significance  of  a  Modern  War. 

Importance  of  Conflict — Interests  Involved — Gravity  of  Possible  Outcome — Con- 
test for  Asiatic  Supremacy — American  Interests  in  the  War — Possibility  of 
Becoming  a  Political  Issue — Difficulty  of  Acquiring  Accurate  Information — 
First  Great  Test  of  Modern  Military  Equipment — Russia  and  Japan  More 
Evenly  Balanced  Than  Generally  Believed — Reporting  a  War — Caesar  One  of 
the  First  War  Correspondents — Gathering  News  in  Recent  Wars — Importance 
and  Difficulties  of  News  Service. 

THE  importance  of  the  late  conflict  between  Russia 
and  Japan,  which  from  its  very  outset  was  prosecuted 
by  the  latter  nation  with  an  energy  and  efficiency 
which  astounded  the  civilized  world,  can  not  be  overesti- 
mated. The  commercial,  financial  and  political  interests  of 
modern  nations  have  been  so  interlinked  with  one  another 
that  a  serious  disarrangement  of  the  relations  between  any 
two  of  the  great  powers  seemed  certain  to  have  far-reaching 
and  serious  results  from  the  very  beginning.  And  in  the 
conflict  now  under  consideration  this  applied  to  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  perhaps,  in  a  fuller  degree  than  to  any 
power  of  the  Old  World,  from  the  fact  that  an  ocean  alone 
divided  them  from  the  countries  concerned,  and  that  their 
relations  with  these  countries  promised  to  be  paramount. 

For  half  a  century  the  great  powers  have  been  arming  and 
making  military  preparations,  until  the  European  peoples  have 
come  to  carry  a  staggering  burden  of  taxation  and  personal 
service.  These  colossal  preparations  and  the  many  conflicting 
interests  of  the  powers  all  pointed  to  an  ultimate  outbreak  in 
a  universal  contest  for  world  supremacy  which  many  serious 
writers  professed  to  think  would  be  the  prophesied  "Arma- 
geddon" of  the  Scriptures.  Whether  the  war  between  Russia 
and  Japan  would  develop  into  this  great  conflict  was  more 

s 

1822687 


6  THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  A  MODERN  WAR 

than  any  man  could  affirm  or  deny,  but  it  became  certain 
at  least  that  the  conflict  was  a  contest  for  Asiatic  suprem- 
acy between  two  powers  whose  interests  and  ambitions  were 
irreconcilable,  and  the  interests  of  every  nation  of  the  world 
which  held  possessions  in  the  East  were  profoundly  affected. 

Especially  interesting,  as  we  have  stated,  was  the  situa- 
tion to  America,  because  of  her  recent  acquisition  of  the  Phil- 
ippines and  the  many  intricate  relationships  which  have 
developed  between  this  and  other  countries  as  a  logical  result 
of  Admiral  Dewey's  great  victory  over  the  Spanish  fleet  at 
Cavite  in  1898.  Furthermore,  as  every  American  citizen 
by  virtue  of  his  ballot  becomes  a  dictator  of  his  country's 
policy,  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  the  causes  and  develop- 
ments of  the  war  becomes  a  subject  of  supreme  interest. 

Moreover,  it  is  a  matter  of  pride  to  every  American  to 
consider  the  important  part  taken  by  the  United  States  in 
bringing  this  awful  conflict,  the  greatest  since  the  days  of 
Napoleon,  to  a  happy  issue ;  It  was  at  her  initiative  that  the 
scene  of  the  conflict  was  limited  to  Manchuria,  and  China  was 
protected  from  devastation.  Finally,  it  was  President  Roose- 
velt who,  at  the  psychological  moment,  suggested  to  the  bel- 
ligerents that  they  should  pause  and  consider  terms  of  peace. 

From  a  more  disinterested  standpoint,  the  war  is  of  intense 
value  to  all  students  of  the  military  art;  because  it  is  the 
first  really  great  test  of  the  efficiency  of  modern  military  equip- 
ment.  The  recent  wars  have  without  exception  been  affairs 
in  which  one  side  so  greatly  overbalanced  the  other  that  the 
conclusion  was  almost  inevitable.  Between  Russia  and 
Japan,  with  their  advanced  state  of  military  preparedness, 
war  became  a  conflict  of  giants.  A  contest  in  which  enemies 
of  comparatively  equal  skill  on  land  and  sea  employed  practi- 
cally the  same  weapons,  resulted  in  definitely  determining 
the  value  of  existing  small  arms  and  heavy  artillery,  the 
respective  merits  of  battleship,  cruiser  and  torpedo  boat,  and 


THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  A  MODERN  WAR  7 

finally  the  modern  status  of  the  rival  branches  of  cavalry  and 
infantry  forces.  Russia  and  Japan  were  more  evenly  matched" 
than  would  at  first  appear.  The  inexhaustible  resources  of 
Russia  both  as  to  wealth  and  population  were  fairly  counter- 
balanced by  her  great  distance  from  her  base  of  supplies, 
her  unpreparedness,  and  the  better  organization  and  efficiency 
of  Japan's  navy  and  army,  plus  her  nearness  to  the  field  of 
operations. 

The  publication  of  a  work  like  this,  in  which  the  man  in 
the  field,  in  direct  contact  with  the  leading  acts  and  person- 
ages of  the  conflict,  co-operated  with  the  man  in  the  heart  of 
civilization  who  received,  and  used,  the  latest  and  most 
accurate  information  from  all  sources,  has  resulted  in  the 
production  of  a  history  of  the  war  which  for  accuracy,  vivid- 
ness, thoroughness,  reliability  and  attractiveness  could  not 
be  approached  in  any  other  way. 

He  knows  from  his  experience  in  Manchuria  that  the 
extent  to  which  modern  civilization  has  advanced  is  in  no 
field  more  particularly  emphasized  than  in  the  development 
of  journalistic  enterprise  in  time  of  war,  and  there  is  no  calling 
in  modern  life  which  combines  so  well  the  atmospheres  of  ad- 
venture and  danger.  The  war  correspondent  of  to-day 
occupies  the  same  place  in  the  twentieth  century  as  that  held 
by  the  Soldiers  of  Fortune  and  the  Free  Lances  in  the  Middle 
Ages. 

There  is  another  and  more  serious  side  which  dulls  the 
glitter  of  romance  to  the  men  who  follow  this  calling.  Along 
with  the  zest  of  an  adventurous  career  is  the  requirement 
of  close  application,  hard  work,  the  collection  and  compilation 
of  endless  facts,  the  quick  arrangement  of  the  same, — in  short, 
a  slavish  obedience  to  the  most  tyrannical  master,  the  cable 
which  carries  the  war  correspondent's  messages  across  con- 
tinents and  seas  into  the  heart  of  an  anxiously  waiting  world 
beyond. 


8  THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  A  MODERN   WAR 

The  close  of  a  war — and  such  are  the  demands  of  modern 
civilization  that  often  the  outset  of  the  war — finds  the  corre- 
spondent its  serious  historian  as  well  as  reporter.  Very  often, 
in  addition  to  the  mere  chronicling  of  events  and  facts,  there 
is  required  of  him  an  ability  to  penetrate  beneath  the  surface 
aspect  of  conditions,  a  knowledge  of  affairs  and  a  philosophical 
understanding  and  practical  skill  in  the  arrangement  of  the  same. 
During  ancient  times  the  war  correspondent,  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  word,  did  not  exist.  In  those  days  frequently  the 
commanding  generals  were  their  own  historians.  Julius  Caesar, 
in  his  "  Commentaries,"  was  practically  one  of  the  first  war  cor- 
respondents ;  but  it  has  remained  for  modern  times  to  develop 
the  genus  war  correspondent  to  his  fullest  extent. 

During  the  American  Civil  War,  journalistic  enter- 
prise set  the  pace  for  the  world,  as  it  has  continued  to  do 
since,  and  here  we  find  the  first  example  of  serious  restraint 
against  that  absolute  freedom  in  the  publication  of  news 
which  followed  the  establishment  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
liberty  of  the  press  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
It  was  necessary  for  the  Federal  Government  to  suppress  a 
number  of  Northern  newspapers  for  alleged  seditious  utter- 
ances, and  correspondents  in  the  field  were  repeatedly  refused 
permission  to  accompany  forces,  while  others  had  privileges 
already  acquired  taken  from  them.  At  certain  stages  of  the 
war  orders  were  issued  to  hang  all  correspondents  who  appeared 
on  the  field,  a  fact  which  shows  that  the  calling  is  not  without 
its  disadvantages.  However,  public  opinion  in  the  long  run 
asserted  its  right  to  have  these  unofficial  representatives  of  the 
masses  in  the  field,  and  the  daily  history  of  the  great  conflict 
between  the  North  and  the  South,  in  spite  of  official  obstacles, 
was  duly  presented  each  morning  to  the  American  public. 

The  Spanish-American  War  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  the 
art  of  war  reporting.  Never  before  had  such  enterprise  been 
indulged  in,  nor  were  such  vast  sums  expended  in  the  collection 


THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  A  MODERN  WAR  9 

of  news.  The  fleet  of  newspaper  boats  plying  between 
Cuban  ports  and  Key  West  are  still  vivid  in  the  eyes  of  the 
American  public,  while  the  scores  of  official  journalists  who 
were  transported  to  the  scene,  and  over  night  manufactured 
into  war  correspondents,  increased  daily.  Never  before,  prob- 
ably, in  the  history  of  the  world  were  there  so  many  distin- 
guished journalists,  whose  names,  to  their  disappointment, 
only  failed  to  become  permanently  famous  because  of  the 
shortness  of  that  conflict. 

The  great  distance,  and  equally  great  expense  of  cable 
tolls,  during  the  Boxer  uprising  acted  as  a  restraint  on  this 
form  of  journalistic  enterprise,  while  in  the  South  African  War, 
which  immediately  preceded  it,  the  efforts  were  confined 
almost  exclusively  to  a  limited  number  of  British  newspapers 
and  news  agencies,  which,  while  covering  the  war  with  great 
thoroughness,  yet  showed  none  of  the  dash  and  spirit  that  is 
characteristic  of  American  journalism.  It  need  scarcely  be 
repeated  that  this  dash  and  spirit  was  especially  needed  in 
our  own  land,  during  the  later  conflict,  since  none  other  sur- 
passed, if  any  equaled,  the  United  States  in  its  vital  interest 
and  concern  in  the  results.  To  secure  for  Americans,  then, 
alike  of  the  United  States  and  of  Canada,  full  information  of 
the  war,  was  a  necessity  which  called  for  the  most  strenuous 
activity  and  energy  on  the  part  of  publishers  of  authorita- 
tive books  as  well  as  of  daily  newspapers. 

In  the  late  Russo-Japanese  War  the  publishers  of  this 
work  as  well  as  the  different  news  agencies  entered  the  field 
with  the  avowed  determination  to  furnish  the  public  with 
the  facts  and  details  of  the  conflict  more  thoroughly  and  com- 
pletely than  ever  before  in  the  history  of  the  publishing  of 
books  of  this  character.  The  results  of  their  efforts  and  of 
the  author's  persistency  and  strenuous  activity  are  found  in 
this  volume  issued  after  peace  has  been  first  declared  on 
American  soil. 


RUSSIA  AND  JAPAN 


-AND  THE- 


GREAT  WAR  IN  THE  FAR  EAST 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  A  MODERN  WAR 

HOW  OUR  AUTHOR  SECURED  INFORMATION  AT 

FIRST  HAND. 

CHAPTER  I. 
PETER  THE  GREAT,  THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA     17 

CHAPTER  II. 
RUSSIA,  FROM  PETER  TO  ALEXANDER 29 

CHAPTER  III. 
NAPOLEON  AT  MOSCOW  AND  HIS  TERRIBLE  RETREAT    37 

CHAPTER  IV. 

j 

THE  WARS   OF  RUSSIA  WITH  TURKEY 47 

ii 


12  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  V. 
RECENT  EMPERORS  AND  THEIR  REIGNS 55 

CHAPTER  VI. 
RUSSIA  IN   CENTRA^  ASIA 67 

CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  RUSSIAN  CONQUEST  OF  SIBERIA 79 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

RUSSIA'S    OCCUPATION     OF     MANCHURIA    AND     PORT 

ARTHUR 86 

CHAPTER  IX. 
THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA 97 

CHAPTER  X. 
RUSSIA'S  HOLD   ON  CHINESE  TERRITORY no 

CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  TERRIBLE   RUSSIAN  EXILE   SYSTEM 124 

• 

CHAPTER  XII. 
COMMODORE  PERRY  AND  THE  OPENING  OF  JAPAN  .    .    133 

CHAPTER   XIII. 
THE  GREAT  REVOLUTION   FROM  SHOGUN  TO  MIKADO  144 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
JAPAN   UNDER  THE  MIKADO 153 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  13 

CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  A  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERN- 
MENT IN  JAPAN 169 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN 183 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

, 

THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND  CHINA 198 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE    BATTLE    OF    THE    YALU    AS    SEEN    BY  AN   EYE 

WITNESS 210 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
HEROIC  EXPLOITS  OF  THE  JAPANESE 220 

CHAPTER  XX. 
JAPAN  ROBBED  OF  HER  SPOILS   BY   RUSSIA 231 

CHAPTER   XXI. 
THS  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA 244 

CHAPTER  XXII. 
THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS  ....    259 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 
KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION 271 


14  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 
THE  POSITION  OF  THE  CHINESE 284 

CHAPTER  XXV. 
GERMANY'S  SYMPATHETIC  SILENCE 289 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 
THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT 297 

• 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 
JAPAN'S  ARMY  AND  NAVY ,    .    .    312 

0 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  OF  RUSSIA 319 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 
THE  BEGINNING  AND  CAUSES  OF  THE  WAR 329 

CHAPTER  XXX. 
PEACE  OR  WAR 338 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 
THE  FIRST  ATTACK  ON   PORT  ARTHUR 344 

CHAPTER  XXXII. 
NAVAL  BATTLE  OFF  CHEMULPO , 354 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  15 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  PETROPAVLOVSK  .....    360 

CHAPTER  XXXIV. 
CROSSING  THE  YALU    ..................    368 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 
DRIVING  THE  RUSSIANS  NORTHWARD  .........    37« 

CHAPTER  XXXVI. 
THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR   .   .   ............    384 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 
THE  PERSONAL  POINT  OF  VIEW   ...........    401 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 
THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  .......   ...    406 

CHAPTER  XXXIX. 
THE  RUSSIAN  ROUT  AT  MUKDEN  ............    439 

CHAPTER  XL. 
THE  ANNIHILATION  OF  THE  BALTIC  FLEET   ......    <H7 


CHAPTER  XLI 
PEACE  DECLARED  AND  THE  THE  TREATY  SIGNED  ...    475 


CHAPTER  I. 

Peter  the  Great,  the  Founder  of  Modern  Russia 

Russia  and  the  Golden  Horde — Ivan  the  Great  and  Ivan  the  Terrible — A  Realm  of 
Barbarians — A  Colossal  Figure — Peter  Wins  the  Throne — His  Love  for  Ships — 
The  Capture  of  Azov — Peter  as  a  Ship  Carpenter  in  Holland  and  England— His 
*,  Great  Reforms— The  Civilizing  of  Russia— The  Mighty  Conflict  with  Charles  XII 
— Defeat  at  Narva  and  Victory  at  Poltava — Russia  Becomes  one  of  the  Great 
Powers  of  Europe — The  Conquest  of  Finland — Campaigns  in  Asia — Death  and 
Character  of  Peter  the  Great. 

RUSSIA,  at  the  time  of  Henry  III  in  England,  some  four 
centuries  before  the  first  settlers  landed  from  the  May- 
flower in  the  United  States,  was  in  a  state  of  great  dis- 
order, split  up  into  a  number  of  petty  principalities,  and  devas- 
tated by  Mongolian  invasions  which  lasted  until  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  The  Russian  princes  were  mere  tax- 
gatherers,  actually  forced  to  pay  homage  to  the  Khans  of  the 
Golden  Horde — a  name  given,  on  account,  it  is  said,  of  the 
splendor  of  their  tents  and  appointments,  to  those  Mongols 
who  had  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga.  Obliged  to  submit 
their  disputes  to  the  decision  of  the  Khan,  the  Russian  princes 
could  not  even  ascend  their  thrones  without  first  receiving 
"  Jarlikh,"  or  letters  patent,  from  their  Mongol  suzerain. 

By  degrees,  however,  the  Mongol  power  waned  while  that 
of  Moscow  increased,  until,  in  the  reign  of  Ivan  III,  who  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Vassili  the  Blind,  in  1463,  the  Muscovites 
were  able  to  throw  off  all  semblance  of  obedience  to  the 
Horde.  In  1478  Ivan  refused  to  pay  tribute,  trampled  on  the 
image  of  the  Khan,  and  put  his  envoys  to  death. 

Ivan  the  Great  had  a  grandson  whose  cruelties  won  for 
him  the  ominous  title  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  but  whose  vigor- 
ous hand  widened  the  empire  of  Russia  and  added  greatly  to 

2  '7 


1 8  THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA 

its  power  and  influence.  Not  long  after  his  death  the  ancient 
dynasty  of  Rurik  died  out,  and  a  new  dynasty,  the  Romanoff, 
came  to  the  throne. 

As  yet  Russia  was  a  realm  of  barbarism,  ruled  by  force  and 
terror,  the  axe,  the  knout,  the  rope,  and  various  implements 
of  torture  forming  much  of  its  governing  machinery.  It  lay  I 
largely  isolated  from  Western  Europe,  divorced  from  the 
growing  civilization  of  that  region,  and  pushing  its  course 
alone  or  under  Asiatic  influences;  its  methods  and  state  of  cul- 
ture being  much  more  in  accord  with  those  of  the  Golden 
Horde  of  the  Tartar  steppes  than  those  of  the  rapidly  advanc- 
ing nations  of  the  West.  But  it  was  laying  the  foundation 
of  a  civilization  still  to  come. 

"  Suddenly  there  sprang  upon  the  field  of  action  a  colossal 
figure — one  of  the  few  men  able  to  break  the  thraldom  which 
custom  and  superstition  impose;  to  overcome  the  prejudices  of 
his  time  ;  to  gather  for  himself  the  stores  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion, and  to  scatter  them  among  his  people.  It  was  an  extra- 
ordinary circumstance  that  such  a  man,  by  the  accident  of  birth, 
should  hold  in  his  single  hand  the  destiny  of  the  whole  Russian 
State.  .  Without  him,  the  reforms  with  which  he  filled  a  life- 
time might  have  required  centuries  for  their  accomplishment. 
He  was  one  of  the  few  great  men  in  history  to  whom  the 
power  was  given  to  turn  with  his  single  arm  the  whole  current 
of  a  nation's  life.  He  tore  Russia  by  main  force  from  her 
ancient  moorings,  and  sent  her  forward  upon  the  swift  stream 
of  modern  civilization. 

"  Peter  the  Great  was  born  a  barbarian  ;  he  passed  much 
of  his  turbulent  youth  upon  the  streets  of  Moscow,  associating 
with  everybody,  acquiring  knowledge  from  every  source.  To 
his  last  day  he  preserved  the  eager  curiosity  of  childhood,  an 
unquenchable  thirst  for  information,  violent  passions,  but  an 
earnest  purpose,  never  to  be  shaken,  of  making  Russia  a  great 
state  and  the  Russian  people  a  great  and  civilized  people. 


THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA  19 

Throwing  aside  all  pomp  and  pageantry,  he  went  everywhere 
incognito,  He  was  disguised  as  a  subordinate  in  the  embassy 
which  left  Russia  to  visit  the  nations  of  Europe.  He  learned 
navigation  from  a  skipper  on  the  White  Sea,  and  ship-building 
in  the  garb  of  a  workman  at  Saardam  and  Amsterdam.  Russia 
should  know  these  things  ;  nobody  else  should  teach  her,  so  he 
must  learn  himself.* 

Peter,  born  on  June  1 1,  1672,  was  but  four  years  of  age  on 
the  death  of  his  father,  Alexis,  and  had  two  brothers,  who  pre- 
, Ceded  him  in  succession  to  the  throne.  Also  his  sister  Sophia,  a 
woman  with  some  of  his  own  energy  and  genius  for  affairs,  made 
vigorous  efforts  to  gain  possession  of  the  power  of  the  State 
and  hold  her  brothers  in  vassalage.  This  served  well  with  the 
weak  and  sickly  Feodor  and  Ivan,  the  older  brothers,  but  soon 
came  to  an  end  when  Peter  reached  his  seventeenth  year  of 
age.  A  revolt  in  his  favor  broke  out,  he  put  himself  at  its 
head,  and  the  matter  was  soon  settled  by  his  ambitious  sister 
being  consigned  to  a  convent  and  he  seating  himself  on  the 
throne. 

The  chief  tutor  of  the  young  prince  had  been  a  man  from 
Geneva,  named  Lefort,  who  had  great  influence  over  the  boy. 
He  told  him  striking  stories  of  the  countries  he  had  visited, 
and  made  him  understand  the  importance  of  ships.  This  led 
to  the  building  of  miniature  vessels  with  masts,  sails  and  guns 
on  the  Pereislavski  lake  near  Moscow,  and  it  was  with  these 
that  the  future  ruler  of  Russia  diverted  himself.  Under  his 
direction  several  sham  fights  took  place,  in  which  he  com- 
manded as  captain.  Thus  a  love  of  the  sea  was  early  devel- 
oped in  Peter,  although  we  are  told  that  at  first  he  had  a  dread 
of  salt  water. 

The  first  great  purpose  which  the  new  Czar  manifested 
may  well  have  been  a  result  of  Lefort's  instruction,  that  of 
obtaining  an  outlet  to  the  sea.  As  yet,  Russia  was  completely 

•  William  Dudley  Foulke,  "  Slav  or  Saxon." 


20  THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA 

an  interior  country,  walled  in  from  the  Baltic  and  the  Black 
Seas  by  foreign  lands,  and  the  gaining  of  an  open  door  to  the 
ocean  was  of  absolute  necessity  to  the  future  progress  of  the 
empire.  In  accordance  with  this  purpose,  General  Gordon — 
an  able  Scotch  soldier  who  had  been  Peter's  chief  aid  in  gaining 
the  throne — was  directed  in  1695  to  march  upon  Azov,  a  Turk- 
ish port  on  the  Black  Sea.  The  place  was  taken  after  a  two 
years'  siege,  and  with  its  acquisition  may  be  said  to  date  the 
active  interference  of  the  Russians  in  the  affairs  of  Turkey, 
which  has  gone  on  until  the  present  day. 

For  years  preceding  Peter  had  been  maturing  a  plan  for 
visiting  Western  Europe,  seeing  with  his  own  eyes  the  features 
of  its  arts  and  progress,  and  especially  for  fitting  himself  to 
aid  his  country  in  the  purpose  which  he  so  warmly  entertained, 
that  of  making  Russia  a  power  upon  the  sea.  In  1697  he  set 
out  upon  this  interesting  journey.  He  traveled  practically 
incognito,  under  the  name  of  Peter  Mikhailov,  and  in  the 
capacity  of  one  of  the  suite  of  the  three  ambassadors,  Lefort, 
Golovin  and  Voznitsin.  Such  a  step  was,  indeed,  a  great 
breaking  with  the  past ;  for  among  the  earlier  Russians  to 
evince  any  desire  for  travel  was  to  commit  a  crime.  The  party 
proceeded  through  Riga  to  Mitau  ;  at  Konigsberg  Peter  had 
an  interview  with  the  Elector  of  Prussia.  He  passed,  how- 
ever, rapidly  through  Berlin,  and  by  degrees  he  reached  Saar- 
dam,  in  Holland,  being  probably  attracted  to  that  country  by 
its  celebrity  as  a  maritime  power.  In  Holland,  Peter  worked 
as  a  common  shipwright  at  the  dockyard,  under  the  name  of 
Peter  Bass,  or  Master  Peter.  He  learned  sufficient  of  tjje  art 
to  build  a  boat  with  his  own  hand,  while  fraternizing  with  his 
fellow  workmen  as  if  he  were  one  of  themselves,  though  his 
secret  was  not  well  kept,  and  it  was  well  known  who  Master 
Peter  really  was.  Peter,  being  a  man  of  magnetic  power,  had 
the  facility  of  assimilating  all  the  good  material  round  him. 
Everywhere  he  displayed  an  insatiable  curiosity.  The 


THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA  21 

certificate  of  efficiency  in  various  handicrafts  which  he  received 
from  the  head  of  the  dockyard,  Gerrit  Claesz  Pool,  is  still 
preserved.  He  next  visited  England,  being,  it  is  said,  in- 
duced to  do  so  by  one  John  Fessing,  an  Englishman,  whom 
he  met.  The  young  Czar  crossed  the  Channel  in  1698,  and 
worked  for  a  time  at  the  Navy  Yard  at  Deptford,  living  in 
the  house  of  the  famous  John  Evelyn,  which  the  Government 
rented  for  him.  It  is  said  that  the  rude  and  barbarian  ways 
of  the  Muscovite  tenants  left  the  house  in  such  a  state  that 
£velyn  brought  in  a  bill  of  damages  for  ^350,  in  order  to  fit 
the  place  for  civilized  habitation  again. 

William  III  arranged  a  sham  sea-fight  at  Spithead  for  the 
benefit  of  his  visitor,  and  finally  Peter  departed  from  England, 
taking  with  him  many  persons  who  were  to  enter  the  Russian 
service — engineers,  mechanics,  mathematicians,  soldiers  and 
sailors — many  Englishmen  and  more  Scots.  The  latter,  in 
many  instances,  were  destined  to  bequeath  their  names,  in  forms 
more  or  less  changed,  to  Russian  descendants. 

France  was  not  visited  by  the  Czar,  but  he  journeyed  to 
Austria,  where  he  was  well  received,  and  from  there  proposed 
to  go  to  Venice  and  study  some  new  kinds  of  ship-building. 
He  was  prevented  from  this  by  receiving  news  of  a  great  out- 
break of  the  Streltsi,  which  might  have  ended  in  his  losing  the 
throne  but  for  the  energy  of  General  Gordon,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded in  subduing  them  and  punishing  many  of  the  leaders 
before  Peter  reached  Moscow  on  his  hasty  return.  Thus  ended 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  dramatic  events  in  history,  that 
of  a  great  emperor  working  as  a  common  laborer  in  foreign 
lands  that  he  might  teach  new  and  useful  arts  to  his  people. 

The  young  Czar  was  not  long  at  home  before  the  results 
of  his  visit  abroad  began  to  be  seen.  Russia  was  far  behind 
the  western  nations  in  the  essentials  of  civilization,  and  had 
preserved  many  barbarian  customs  which  he,  in  his  ardent  way, 
proposed  to  get  rid  of  at  once.  The  reforms  he  instituted 


22  THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA 

were  of  so  radical  a  nature  as  to  stir  the  social  life  of  the  state 
almost  as  if  it  had  been  shaken  by  an  earthquake  of  new 
opinions. 

To  a  large  extent  the  old  nobility  was  supplanted  by  the 
so-called  nobility  of  merit,  the  nobility  of  office-holders,  estab- 
lished by  Peter,  whose  appointments  and  promotion  depended 
upon  service  to  the  State.  Peter  decreed  that  land  should  go 
to  the  oldest  by  birth.  The  seclusion  of  women  was  abolished, 
for  this  was  contrary  to  the  customs  of  Europe,  and  was  not 
necessary  to  the  support  of  his  power.  Women  were  -no 
longer  compelled  to  marry  against  their  will.  The  corruptions 
of  office-holders  had  been  frightful,  men  soliciting  offices  of 
the  Czar  that  they  "might  feed  themselves"  by  plundering  the 
people.  These  things  were  mercilessly  punished.  A  state 
inquisition  was  established  for  "crimes  against  the  majesty  of 
the  Czar."  Apothecaries'  shops  were,  for  the  first  time,  estab- 
lished in  Moscow,  and  the  Russians  were  forbidden  to  carry 
knives,  the  use  of  which  often  led  to  quarrels  and  outrages  in 
the  streets.  But  the  punishments  inflicted  by  the  Russian  courts 
continued  to  be  cruel  for  some  time  afterwards ;  men  were 
broken  on  the  wheel  or  hung  up  to  die  with  a  hook  round  one 
of  their  ribs.  Women  were  buried  alive  for  the  murder  of  a 
husband.  The  penalty  of  banishment  to  Siberia  was  in  full 
force — it  may  be  said  to  have  begun  at  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  but  it  reached  its  height  in  the  reigns  of  Anne 
and  Elizabeth. 

Peter's  method  of  enforcing  his  reforms  is  of  interest  for 
its  barbarous  simplicity.  All  towns  had  to  send  shoemakers  to 
learn  the  trade  at  Moscow  ;  the  great  beards  of  the  Russians 
were  taxed  out  of  existence  ;  the  long  caftan,  a  cloak  which 
descends  to  the  heels,  and  is  characteristic  of  Oriental  peoples, 
was  exchanged  fora  coat  in  the  French  style  ;  no  Russian  could 
become  a  monk  until  thirty  years  of  age,  in  order  that  popula- 
tion might  not  be  diminished.  The  Czar  determined  to  establish 


THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA  23 

a  new  capital  by  the  sea  ;  he  would  tear  the  Russians  away  from 
their  old  associations  around  Moscow,  and  give  his  land  an 
open  gate  to  the  western  ocean.  St.  Petersburg  was  built  by 
edicts.  It  was  decreed  that  there  should  be  no  stone  house 
erected  except  at  the  new  capital,  and  all  stone-masons  flocked 
thither  at  once.  Every  owner  of  five  hundred  peasants  was 
required  to  build  a  house  in  the  city.  The  capital  of  Russia 
remains  a  durable  monument  to  the  energy  of  the  great  Czar. 

Such  were  some  of  the  triumphs  of  pe.ace  in  the  life  of 
the  energetic  Czar.  Those  of  war  were  no  less  notable.  The 
famous  warlike  chapter  in  his  reign  was  his  struggle  with 
Charles  XII,  of  Sweden,  one  of  the  greatest  soldiers  and  most 
remarkable  figures  in  history,  and  a  man  who,  if  he  had  not 
been  opposed  by  a  monarch  of  such  genius  and  energy  as  Peter 
the  Great,  might  have  conquered  Russia,  as  the  Tartars  had 
done  centuries  before. 

Peter  now  more  fully  than  ever  realized  the  need  of  an. 
outlet  to  the  sea.  He  had  partly  succeeded  at  Azov,  but  now 
had  his  eyes  firmly  fixed,  on  the  Baltic,  which  at  that  time  was 
practically  a  Swedish  lake,  since  Sweden  held  its  bordering 
provinces.  In  his  efforts  tc  carry  out  this  scheme  he  had 
Charles  XII,  who  came  to  the  throne  of  Sweden  in  1697,  at 
the  age  of  fifteen,  to  deal  with. 

We  cannot  tell  all  the  events  of  the  famous  war  which 
succeeded,  but  it  may  be  said  that  Peter  was  soon  taught  the 
great  deficiencies  of  his  army,  as  compared  with  the  thor- 
oughly trained  troops  of  Sweden,  A  Russian  force  60,000 
strong,  while  besieging  Narva,  in  1 700.  was  attacked  by 
Charles,  at  the  head  of  6,000  Swedes,  and  so  thoroughly 
beaten  that  their  losses  exceeded  the  whole  army  of  the 
Swedes.  It  was  the  most  complete  rout  ever  experienced  in 
Russian  history,  and  Peter  was  for  the  first  time  taught  that  he 
needed  a  modern  army  as  well  as  a  navy. 

Eight  years  later,  after  remarkable  successes  in  Poland, 


24  THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA 

Charles  invaded  Russia,  with  the  purpose  of  marching  to  Mos* 
cow — a  purpose  imitated  by  Napoleon  a  century  and  more 
later.  He  concealed  his  purpose,  entering  the  fertile  country 
of  the  Ukraine,  where  the  Tartar  enemies  of  Russia  had  accu- 
mulated large  stores  of  grain  for  his  army.  But  he  was  not  to 
find  this  expedition  as  easy  a  one  as  that  against  Narva.  In 
the  years  that  had  intervened  Peter  had  been  learning  the  art  of 
war  from  his  foe  and  training  his  troops  for  European  warfare, 
and  he  was  now  ready  to  teach  the  ambitious  Swede  a  lesson. 
As  soon  as  the  movements  of  Charles  unmasked  his  plan, 
Peter  was  ready  for  him.  He  moved  up  his  soldiers,  came  on 
the  flank  of  the  enemy  and  marched  parallel  with  him,  harass- 
ing him  on  all  sides,  and  cutting  off  stragglers,  especially  at 
Dobroe.  So  completely  were  the  neighboring  towns  and  vil- 
lages burned,  that  Charles  only  found  uninhabitable  ruins  await- 
ing him.  The  weather  was  severe,  and  in  his  apprehension 
that  his  army  would  perish  from  hunger,  he  sent  orders  to 
Lewenhaupt,  who  had  come  from  Livonia  with  great  quanti- 
ties of  provisions  and  military  stores,  to  join  the  main  army  as 
soon  as  possible.  The  Russian  generals,  having  learned  this, 
determined  to  send  some  regiments  to  intercept  Lewenhaupt. 
The  guide,  a  Jew,  who  had  been  bribed  by  the  Swedes,  con- 
ducted them  to  Smolensk,  assuring  them  that  they  would  meet 
the  enemy  there  ;  while  Lewenhaupt,  following  another  route, 
was  already  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mohilev,  a  few  days'  jour- 
ney from  the  Swedish  army.  Fortunately  for  him,  the  Czar  dis- 
covered his  mistake  in  time,  and,  changing  his  route,  overtook 
the  Swedish  general  not  far  from  Proprisk,  at  the  village  of 
Liesnoe,  on  the  river  Sozh.  There  he  forced  him  to  fight,  and, 
in  spite  of  the  superiority  of  their  numbers  and  the  desperate 
bravery  of  the  Swedes,  completely  defeated  them  (Oct.  10, 
1708).  Lewenhaupt  lost  more  than  half  his  army  corps,  with 
all  his  baggage,  and  when  he  appeared  in  the  camp  of  Charles 
it  was  as  a  fugitiVe. 


THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA  25 

The  winter  of  1708  now  came  on,  and  proved  to  be  one 
of  unusual  severity  ;  and  here  again  the  fortunes  of  Charles 
afford  an  exact  parallel  to  those  of  Napoleon.  Ustrialov,  the 
Russian  historian,  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  birds  were  frozen 
on  the  wing.  The  Swedes  suffered  severely,  but  Charles 
shared  the  privations  of  his  men.  The  only  chance  for  him 
would  have  been  to  retreat  into  Poland,  but  he  was  still 
eager  to  force  his  way  to  Moscow.  On  the  route  of  Charles 
lay  the  town  of  Poltava,  a  place  which  till  then  had  been 
£O'  obscure  that  there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  ascer- 
taining the  early  spelling  of  the  name.  It  is  situated  on  the 
river  Vorskla,  and  was  held  by  a  strong  garrison  under  the  com- 
mand of  Colonel  Kellin.  Charles  anticipated  little  difficulty 
in  capturing  the  town  ;  but  Kellin  showed  no  signs  of  surren- 
dering, and  a  siege  began  which  lasted  two  months,  and  proved 
very  exhausting  to  the  forces  of  the  Swedish  King. 

Peter  was  now  hastening  to  the  relief  of  the  town  with  a 
far  more  efficient  army  than  the  untraineo^  mob  which  had 
been  so  easily  defeated  at  Narva.  The  two  armies,  led  by  the 
two  sovereigns,  met  on  July  7,  1709 — Charles  carried  in  a  litter, 
as  he  had  been  disabled  by  a  wound  in  the  foot.  The  battle 
that  followed  was  a  veritable  duel,  the  first  to  fire  being 
Charles.  Sitting  in  his  litter,  and  surrounded  by  his  guards, 
he  sent  his  soldiers  straight  against  the  redoubts  built  in  front 
of  the  Russian  camp.  The  Swedes  rushed  up  to  the  very 
trenches,  but  were  met  with  such  a  terrific  cannonade  that  the 
men  fled  for  shelter  into  a  wood  which  lay  in  front  of  the  Rus- 
sian camp,  and  with  some  difficulty  re-formed  there  in  some- 
thing approaching  order.  In  the  midst  of  this  panic,  the  right 
wing  of  the  Swedish  forces  became  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  army  and  was  cut  to  pieces  by  Menshikov.  Mean- 
while, the  Czar  brought  his  main  body  into  action  from  the 
trenches  and  moved  them  skillfully  on  the  enemy.  Visit- 
ing the  regiments,  he  told  the  soldiers  that  the  time  had 


2 5  THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA 

come  which  was  to  decide  the  fate  of  Russia  ;  that  they  were 
fighting,  not  for  Peter,  but  for  the  empire  entrusted  to  Peter; 
for  their  families,  their  country  and  the  Holy  Orthodox  Faith  ; 
that  they  must  not  allow  themselves  to  be  daunted  by  the 
supposed  invincibility  of  the  enemy.  The  engagement  then 
began.  Peter  attacked  the  army  of  the  invaders  on  both 
flanks,  and  at  the  end  of  two  hours  had  gained  a  complete 
victory.  During  the  stampede  which  ensued,  Charles  fell 
several  times  from  the  litter.  Those  who  succeeded  in  escap- 
ing made  for  Turkish  territory,  but  prisoners  to  the  number  of 
2800  were  taken,  including  the  principal  Swedish  officers  and 
Count  Piper,  the  King's  minister.  The  defeat  was  total. 
Charles  took  refuge  in  the  Turkish  dominions,  and  his  career 
was  practically  at  an  end.  Though  eventually  he  made  his 
way  back  to  Sweden,  he  never  troubled  Peter  the  Great  again. 
Russia  had  triumphed  in  its  first  contest  with  the  soldiers  of 
civilized  Europe. 

The  battle  of  Poltava  has  always  been  reckoned  one  of 
the  decisive  battles  of  the  world.  It  signified  two  things  : 
first,  the  fall  of  Sweden  from  her  position  as  the  leading  power 
of  Northern  Europe,  which  she  owed  in  great  measure  to  the 
military  genius  of  Gustavus  Adolphus ;  and  secondly,  the 
assumption  of  that  place  by  Russia.  Up  to  this  time  Peter 
had  been  regarded  by  the  other  Europeans  with  mingled  feel- 
ings of  astonishment  and  contempt ;  now,  however,  there  mani- 
fested itself  a  universal  inclination  to  court  him,  especially 
among  the  petty  German  potentates.  But  not  only  did 
Peter  thus  establish  his  position  towards  the  other  European 
powers ;  he  also  by  this  brilliant  victory,  so  gratifying  to  Rus- 
sian pride,  reconciled  his  own  subjects  to  the  many  reforms 
which  had  been  introduced  and  the  high-handed  manner  in 
which  they  had  been  carried  out. 

The  aggressive  designs  of  Peter  were  next  directed 
against  Finland.  He  must  have  perceived  that  it  was  too  near 


THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA  27 

to  St.  Petersburg  to  be  allowed  to  remain  in  foreign  hands. 
The  Russians  felt  this  in  the  reign  of  Catharine  II,  when 
naval  battles  took  place,  the  cannonades  of  which  shook  the 
city.  The  skillful  Swedish  general,  Liibecker,  was  then  operat- 
ing in  Finland.  In  May,  1715,  Peter  appeared  off  Helsingfors, 
which  the  Swedes  surrendered  to  him,  and  he  also  got  posses- 
sion of  Abo.  Hereupon  the  Swedish  government  removed 
Liibecker  and  put  Armfeldt  in  his  place.  However,  on  Octo- 
ber i8lh  Armfeldt  was  defeated  by  the  Russian  admirals, 
Apraksin  and  Gallitzin.  At  the  same  time  the  Czar  (1714) 
obtained  a  great  naval  victory  at  a  point  between  Helsingfors 
and  Abo,  and  took  prisoner  Admiral  Ehrenskjold  with  all  his 
squadron.  The  conquest  of  the  Aland  islands  was  another 
result  of  this  victory.  Finally  when  Nyslott,  one  of  the 
remaining  fortresses,  was  taken,  the  Swedish  troops  evacuated 
the  Baltic  Provinces,  leaving  these  and  half  a  province  of  Fin- 
land in  the  hands  of  the  Russians. 

These  military  affairs,  we  may  say,  took  place  in  the  inter- 
vals of  the  reforms  which  Peter  worked  diligently  to  bring 
about  in  the  state  during  his  entire  career.  This  he  did  in  the 
abrupt  way  in  which  he  had  dealt  with  the  long  beards  and 
coats  of  the  old  Russians,  and  not  without  stubborn  opposi- 
tion. But  everything  fell  before  the  vigorous  will  of  the  Czar, 
and  the  Russia  he  left  was  a  very  different  one  in  manners  and 
customs — perhaps  not  so  much  in  the  true  essentials  of  civili- 
zation --from  that  to  which  he  had  succeeded. 

His  efforts  to  extend  the  dominion  of  Russia  were  not 
confined  to  Europe,  Asia  being  invaded  by  his  armies.  Of 
this  we  shall  speak  briefly  in  a  later  chapter,  and  it  must  suffice 
here  to  say  that  the  chief  result  of  his  campaigns  in  Asia  was 
the  acquisition  of  some  territory  on  the  southern  shores  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  over  which  the  Russian  flag  first  waved  on  the 
iQth  of  July,  1722.  In  his  reign  the  interference  of  Russia 
in  the  affairs  of  Poland  first  began  ;  not  to  end  until  that 


28  THE  FOUNDER  OF  MODERN  RUSSIA 

unhappy  kingdom  was  removed  from  the  map  of  Europe. 
Throughout  his  reign  his  predilection  for  the  water  and 
his  desire  to  make  Russia  a  power  upon  the  sea  did  not  cease. 
It  was,  in  a  way,  the  cause  of  his  death. 

Peter  had  always  been  careless  of  his  person.  He  had 
fearlessly  exposed  himself  to  all  climates,  and  had  committed 
many  excesses  in  eating  and  drinking.  When  he  was  about 
fifty  years  of  age  his  robust  constitution  began  to  show  signs 
of  weakness.  He  further  impaired  it  by  spending  much  time 
in  the  marshes,  superintending  the  works  of  the  Ladoga  canal, 
accompanied  by  Munich,  who  was  afterwards  to  play  such  an 
important  part  in  Russian  history.  He  also  undertook  a 
journey  into  Finland  at  a  very  unseasonable  time  of  the  year. 
He  entered  the  port  of  Lachta  on  the  5th  of  November, 
1725,  and  there  witnessed  the  dangers  to  which  some  sol- 
diers and  sailors  were  exposed  in  a  small  vessel.  Seeing 
that  they  were  unable  to  help  themselves,  he  jumped  into 
a  skiff,  and  thence  into  the  sea,  and  so  reached  the  stranded 
vessel.  He  succeeded  in  rescuing  the  crew,  at  the  risk  of  his 
life,  a  striking  proof  that  he  was  a  brave,  and,  on  occasion, 
a  humane  man.  But  the  same  night  the  chill  brought  on 

O  O 

an  old  malady.  He  fell  into  a  violent  fever.  Ill,  however,  as 
he  was,  his  mind  was  active,  and  he  gave  commission  to  the 
navigator  Behring  for  his  famous  voyage  of  discovery.  He 
suffered  a  great  deal,  but  was  able  to  dictate  to  those  round 
him  his  last  orders.  He  entreated  Catharine,  his  wife,  to  protect 
his  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  to  invite  learned  men  to  it  from 
other  parts  of  Europe.  He  then  pointed  out  Ostermann  to 
her,  saying:  "Russia  cannot  do  without  him;  he  is  the  only 
man  who  knows  her  real  interests."  He  then,  in  a  calm  man- 
ner, fixed  the  time  during  which  mourning  should  be  worn  for 
him  ;  and  on  January  28th,  about  4  o'clock  in  the  morning,  the 
end  came. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Russia  from  Peter  to  Alexander 

Successors  of  Peter  the  Great — The  Revolution  Against  Peter  III — Catharine  II  on 
the/Throne — The  Cossack  Revolt — Defeat  and  Death  ofPugachev — The  Partition 
of  Poland — Kosciuszko  Defeated  and  Warsaw  Taken — The  Russians  and  the 
Turks — Great  Victory  in  the  Crimea — The  Turkish  Navy  Annihilated — Gustavus 
of  Sweden  Foiled — Reforms  of  Catharine  the  Great — The  Czar  Paul  is  Assas- 
sinated— Suvaroff  Fights  Against  France  —  The  Wars  with  Napoleon  —  How 
Napoleon  Broke  the  Peace  with  Alexander. 

FROM  the  death  of  Peter  the  Great,  in  1725,  to  the  suc- 
cession of  the  great  Catharine,  in  1 762,  there  were 
several  reigns,  but  the  history  of  Russia  was  not  made 
notable  by  any  events  of  leading  importance.  The  reigns, 
therefore,  of  these  monarchs  may  be  passed  over  with  the 
mere  mention  of  the  names  of  the  Empresses  Catharine,  Anne 
and  Elizabeth,  and  the  Emperors  Peter  IIr  Ivan  VI  and 
Peter  III,  and  our  attention  fixed  on  that  of  Catharine  II, 
surnamed  "the  Great."  This  title  is  not  without  warrant,  for 
she  was  a  woman  fitted  to  mate  with  Elizabeth  of  England  in 
political  ability,  and  her  reign  ranks  after  that  of  Peter  the 
Great  as  the  second  in  brilliance  in  the  Russian  annals. 

Peter  III,  the  nephew  and  successor  of  the  Empress 
Elizabeth,  took  to  wife  a  German  princess,  Sophia  of  Anhalt- 
Zerbst,  who  was  taken  into  the  Greek  Church  under  the  name 
of  Catharine.  A  woman  of  extraordinary  talent  and  enter- 
prise, and  the  wife  of  a  weak  and  puerile  prince,  who  treated 
her  with  contempt  and  brutality,  she  gradually  gathered  about 
her  a  powerful  party,  who  despised  the  Czar  for  his  drunken- 
ness and  licentiousness,  and  ridiculed  him  for  his  weakness  and 
frivolity.  This  state  of  affairs  ended  in  a  revolution,  in  which 

29 


30  RUSSIA  FROM  PETER  TO  ALEXANDER 

Peter  was  imprisoned  and  Catharine  raised  to  the  throne.  A 
few  days  later  the  death  of  the  Czar  was  announced — of  colic, 
it  was  said  ;  of  poison,  it  was  believed.  But  no  one  mourned 
him,  and  Catharine  was  accepted  as  the  people's  choice. 

In  describing  the  reign  of  this  remarkable  woman,  it  will 
be  well  to  begin  with  a  condensed  account  of  the  numerous 
'warlike  enterprises  of  her  reign,  and  the  great  accessions  of 
territory  gained,  in  which  she  rivalled  the  exploits  of  Peter  the 
Great.  As  we  have  said  of  Peter,  the  Russia  she  left  was  a 
much  greater  and  more  powerful  realm  than  the  Russia  to 
whose  throne  she  came. 

A  leading  event  of  her  ^eign  was  brought  about  by  a 
great  insurrection  of  the  Cossacks,  those  nomads  of  Tartar 
blood,  who  had  long  lived  under  Russian  rule,  but  were  as 
wild  and  fierce  as  their  brethren  of  the  desert.  The  Cossacks 
of  the  Yaik,  among  whom  the  insurrection  began,  were  a 
branch  of  the  Do.n  Cossacks,  and  had  been  subjects  of  Russia 
from  the  time  of  the  Czar  Michael.  Till  the  reign  of  Peter 
the  Great  they  had  lived  in  all  the  ordinary  license  of  Cossack 
life — they  elected  their  own  hetman  and  elder,  paid  no  taxes, 
and  were  liable  to  no  military  duties,  except  a  very  light  serv- 
ice. They  were  in  the  habit  of  committing  depredations  on 
the  Caspian  Sea,  where  they  plundered  Persian  trading  vessels. 
Now  and  then  they  received  a  severe  reprimand  from  Mos- 
cow, but  were  never  efficaciously  punished.  Their  remarkable 
insurrection  broke  out  in  1773.  The  leader,  Emilian  Puga- 
chev,  was  a  Cossack  of  the  Don,  who  gave  himself  out  to  be 
the  Emperor  Peter  III,  having,  according  to  his  story,  escaped 
from  the  clutches  of  the  conspirators.  It  is  said  that  one  day 
an  officer  casually  remarked  to  Pugachev,  who  was  serving  in 
the  ranks,  that  he  resembled  very  much  the  late  Czar.  The 
remark  took  effect  in  the  insurrection  under  review.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  insurrection  his  force  numbered  3,000  men, 
which  in  a  short  time  swelled  to  30,000.  He  made  himself 


RUSSIA  FROM  PETER  TO  ALEXANDER  31 

master  with  remarkable  rapidity  of  all  the  fortified  places  of 
the  Ural ;  had  besieged  Orenburg  and  stirred  up  the  Bashkirs, 
Calmucks  and  Kirghiz  Kazaks. 

The  sudden  death  in  the  field  of  General  Bibikov,  an  able 

officer  chosen  by  Catharine  to  deal  with  the  rebels,  added  to 

.  the  strength  of  the  movement.      Pugachev's  force  very  rapidly 

'increased,  and  with  a  vast  body  of  followers  he  marched  upon 

Kazan,  which  he  took,  plundered  and  burnt.     From  this  point 

he  designed  to  move  upon  Moscow  and  make  himself  master 

of  the  ancient  capital  of  the  land. 

The  rapid  and  threatening  progress  of  the  rebels  was  at 
length  arrested  by  General  Michelson,  who  defeated  them  and 
drove  them  back  in  the  direction  of  the  Volga,  following  their 
steps  with  unceasing  activity.  Pugachev  now  abandoned  all 
thought  of  marching  on  Moscow,  and  began  to  look  out  for  a 
refuge  in  Turkey  or  Persia.  He  made  a  rapid  retreat, 
destroying  all  the  villages  and  towns  in  his  way,  including 
Penza  and  Saratov.  When  he  had  nearly  reached  Astrakhan, 
whence  he  could  easily  have  escaped  to  the  sea,  Michelson  fell 
once  more  upon  him  below  Tsaritsin,  and,  having  completely 
defeated  him,  forced  him  across  the  Volga  into  the  steppes* 
Here,  behind  Lake  Elbon,  the  rebel  was  surrounded  by  the 
soldiers  who  gathered  together  from  all  quarters  as  Count 
Panin  had  skillfully  arranged.  Finally  Suvaroff  came  upon 
the  scene  and  pursued  him  at  the  head  of  Michelson's  regi- 
ment. The  confederates  of  Pugachev  now  saw  no  other 
means  of  escaping  from  the  trap  in  which  they  had  fallen  than 
by  throwing  themselves  on  the  mercy  of  the  Government. 
They  therefore  resolved  to  sacrifice  their  leader.  He  was 
delivered  up  at  Simbirsk  and  taken  in  an  iron  cage  to  Mos- 
cow. There  he  was  kept  for  about  two  months  fastened  by  a 
chain  to  the  wall  and  subjected  to  the  gaze  of  the  inquisitive 
public.  -He  seems  to  have  shown  none  of  the  courage  that 
might  have  been  expected  from  his  career.  On  the  22nd  of 


32  RUSSIA  FROM  PETER  TO  ALEXANDER 

January,  1775,  he  was  executed,  together  with  five  of  his  con- 
federates. 

The  number  of  persons  killed  by  this  monster  was  very 
great,  and  dreary  lists  are  appended  to  the  Russian  works  on 
the  rebellion.  It  is  not  a  little  curious  that  even  so  late  as  the 
time  when  Pushkin  was  collecting  materials  for  his  history, 
about  1830,  he  found  many  peasants  who  still  believed  that 
Pugachev  was  the  genuine  Emperor ;  one  old  woman  said  to 
Pushkin — "  You  call  him  impostor,  but  we  call  him  our  Czar, 
Peter  III."  If  he  had  not  estranged  so  many  people  by  his 
reckless  and  meaningless  cruelties,  one  cannot  help  thinking 
he  might  have  succeeded. 

We  now  come  to  what  was,  perhaps,  the  most  important 
series  of  events  of  the  reign  of  Catharine — the  dismemberment 
of  Poland.  The  attention  of  Russia  was  by  this  time  concen- 
trated on  that  unhappy  country,  which  had  long  exhibited 
signs  of  decay.  Once  an  extensive  and  powerful  country, 
occupying  a  broad  territory  between  Russia  and  the  German 
States,  it  had  been  seriously  weakened  by  the  invasion  and 
conquest  of  Charles  XII,  the  Swedish  Alexander,  and  still 
.more  so  by  the  mediaeval  character  of  its  government  and  the 
insubordination  of  its  nobles  and  people.  As  a  consequence, 
it  had  become  greatly  diminished  in  territory  and  so  broken  in 
strength  by  internal  dissensions  as  to  lay  it  bare  to  the  cupid- 
ity of  surrounding  monarchs. 

Charles  XII  had,  at  an  earlier  date  planned  its  division, 
and  this  idea  was  brought  up  again  by  Frederick  the  Great, 
the  most  ambitious  and  predatory  monarch  of  the  age. 
Russia  and  Austria  readily  became  his  confederates  in  this 
brigandish  scheme,  and  a  treaty  of  partition  was  signed  at  St. 
Petersburg  in  1772,  Russia  obtaining  a  large  section  of  the 
divided  land. 

The  final  partition  of  unhappy  Poland  was  accomplished 
twenty  years  later.  In  the  interim,  what  had  been  left  by  the 


RUSSIA  FROM  PETER  TO  ALEXANDER  33 

imperial  robbers  had  struggled  on  in  a  state  of  great  weak- 
ness, and  they  now  saw  their  opportunity  to  complete  their 
nefarious  work.  It  was  not  accomplished,  however,  without 
vigorous  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  -Polish  patriots,  who, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  heroic  Kosciuszko,  fought  nobly 
for  the  liberty  of  their  imperilled  land.  But  the  Russians  and 
Prussians  poured  vast  armies  across  the  borders,  Kosciuszko 
was  defeated  by  Suvaroff  and  fell  despejately  wounded  on  the 
field  of  battle  ;  Warsaw  was  besieged  and  taken,  with  a  fearful 
massacre  of  its  inhabitants,  and  the  last  remnants  of  the  once 
great  kingdom  of  Poland  were  absorbed  by  the  robber  states. 

Two  other  series  of  wars  were  conducted  by  the  generals 
of  the  energetic  Catharine,  one  against  Turkey  and  the  other 
against  Sweden.  War  against  the  former  power  was  declared 
in  1767  and  continued  till  1774,  immense  armies  being  put  in 
the  field  and  very  active  operations  conducted.  The  great 
event  of  the  war,  however,  was  the  notable  battle  between  the 
Russians  under  Rumiantsov  and  an  immensely  larger  force  of 
Turks  and  Tartars. 

The  scene  of  this  engagement  was  the  Crimean  peninsula, 
in  which  the  Russians  had  just  before  attacked  and  captured 
the  camp  of  the  Tartar  Khan,  with  all  its  artillery.  But  the 
position  of  Rumiantsov  was  now  a  very  dangerous  one.  His 
army  was  reduced  to  1 7,000  men,  weakened  by  disease  and  by 
the  loss  of  some  regiments  who  were  protecting  the  convoy  of 
provisions.  These  men  were  exhausted  by  their  rapid  marches, 
by  a  battle  which  they  had  only  recently  fought,  and  by  the 
deficiency  of  food. 

In  front  were  150,000  Turks,  and  from  behind  they  were 
threatened  by  80,000  Tartars.  But  Rumiantsov  managed  to 
keep  his  presence  of  mind,  and,  having  given  his  soldiers  a  short 
time  to  rest,  issued  orders  for  the  battle.  His  army  was 
divided  into  five  squares.  General  Bauer  was  ordered  to 
attack  the  left  wing  of  the  enemy,  and  Prince  Repnin  and 

3 


34  RUSSIA  FROM  PETER  TO  ALEXANDER 

Count  Bruce  (a  descendant  of  an  old  Scottish  family)  to  sur- 
round the  right,  while  Plemiannikov  and  Olets  delivered  the 
centre  attack,  the  commander-in-chief  being  himself  in  front. 
On  the  night  of  the  2nd  of  August  the  army  quietly  marched 
in  squares  on  the  enemy,  and  when  the  morning  broke  went 
straight  against  the  camp,  which  was  protected  by  deep 
(trenches.  The  Turks  seemed  at  first  panic-stricken  at  the 
sudden  appearance  of  the  Russians,  but  soon  swarmed  out  of 
their  entrenchments  and  threw  the  division  of  Plemiannikov 
into  confusion.  This  caused  a  slight  hesitation  on  the  part  of 
the  Russian  right  wing,  and  as  a  result*  some  regiments  were 
mown  down  by  the  Janissaries;  others  began  to  retreat. 
Thereupon  Rumiantsov  rushed  into  the  thickest  part  of  the 
fray,  and  crying  out,  "Stop,  boys!"  rallied  the  fugitives.  Led 
by  him  in  person,  the  Russians  now  took  to  their  bayonets. 
The  enemy  began  to  waver,  and  his  confusion  was  increased 
by  the  excellent  fire  of  the  artillery.  At  length,  after  many 
hours  of  stubborn  fighting,  the  Russian  soldiers  rushed  into 
the  camp  on  all  sides.  The  Vizier  fled  to  Bulgaria,  followed 
by  the  whole  of  the  Turkish  army.  The  passage  of  the 
Danube  was  a  matter  of  some  difficulty,  and  thousands  of  the 
Turks  were  drowned  in  its  waters.  The  Khan  of  the  Crimea, 
who  had  fallen  upon  the  Russian  rear,  also  took  to  flight  and 
concealed  himself  at  Ochakov.  The  whole  Turkish  baggage 
and  artillery,  and  a  vast  quantity  of  treasure,  remained  in  the 
hands  of  the  conquerors.  Rumiantsov  was  loaded  with  honors 
by  the  Empress  for  his  victory. 

To  this  signal  victory  was  added  a  great  naval  victory  on 
the  part  of  the  Russians,  in  which  a  Turkish  fleet  nearly  twice 
as  large  as  that  of  Russia  was  completely  worsted,  the  whole 
fleet  of  nearly  a  hundred  vessels  being  destroyed  in  a  six- 
hours'  engagement. 

The  results  of  this  great  success  were  the  following  :  In 
the  treaty  of  peace  of  July  22,  1774,  Turkey  recognized  the 


RUSSIA  FROM  PETER  TO  ALEXANDER  35 

independence  of  the  Tartar  Khans  of  the  Crimea — a  move- 
ment preliminary  to  the  annexation  of  their  country  by  Russia, 
which  was  brought  about  by  a  later  war.  Russia  gained 
several  posts  on  the  Black  Sea  and  the  right  of  free  navigation 
to  the  Mediterranean,  indemnity  for  the  expenses  of  the 
war,  and  rights  and  privileges  for  her  subjects  in  Turkey  which 
they  had  never  before  enjoyed. 

The  war  with  Sweden  was  in  consequence  of  the  ambition 
of4  Gustavus  III  of  that  country,  who  hoped  to  gain  the  fame 
in  war  of  his  ancestors,  the  great  Gustavus  and  Charles  XII. 
But  he  found  the  Russians  fully  his  match,  and  after  a  desperate 
struggle  he  was  forced,  in  1 790,  to  conclude  peace,  after  a  great 
shedding  of  blood  and  a  prodigal  waste  of  the  resources  of 
his  poor  kingdom,  with  no  gain  to  show  for  it. 

Such  were  the  military  events  of  the  reign  of  Catharine  the 
Great.  The  legislative  and  constitutional  reforms  were  equally 
worthy  of  note,  much  being  done  towards  bringing  about  that 
progress  in  civilization  which  Peter  the  Great  had  so  ably  in- 
augurated. A  new  and  modernized  code  of  .laws  was  estab- 
lished, the  estates  of  the  clergy  were  secularized,  the  position 
of  the  nobles  in  relation  to  the  throne  was  definitely  fixed,  and 
the  supreme  and  autocratic  authority  of  the  sovereign  was 
asserted  in  the  most  emphatic  manner. 

At  the  beginning  of  Catharine's  reign  her  ideas  were 
.extremely  liberal  ;  she  established  a  commission  to  com- 
pile the  new  code,  and  gave  to  the  commissioners  instruc- 
tions as  to  the  principles  which  should  govern  them,  taken 
from  the  brightest  pages  of  the  philosophy  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  They  contained  such  maxims  as  the  follow- 
ing :  "  The  nation  is  not  made  for  the  sovereign,  but  the 
sovereign  for  the  nation.'.'  "  Equality  consists  in  the  obedi- 
ence of  the  citizen  to  the  law  alone  ;  liberty  is  the  right  to  do 
everything  that  is  not  forbidden  by  law."  '  It  is  better  to 
spare  ten  guilty  men  than  to  put  one  innocent  man  to  death." 


36  RUSSIA  FROM  PETER  TO  ALEXANDER 

"  Torture  is  an  admirable  means  for  convicting  an  innocent  but 
weakly  man,  and  for  saving  a  stout  fellow  even  when  he  is 
guilty." 

She  had  much  to  say  about  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs  ; 
and  established  a  society  in  which  the  question  of  emancipa- 
tion was  made  a  subject  for  prize  competition.  An  article  in 
its  favor  won  the  prize.  But  Catharine  did  nothing  beyond 
this.  In  fact,  she  finally  aggravated  the  evil  of  serfdom  by 
dividing  many  of  her  own  serfs  among  the  nobles.  She  for- 
bade peasants  to  complain  of  their  masters,  and  a  master 
might  send  his  serf  to  Siberia  at  will.  In  truth,  while  she  did 
much  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  middle  classes,  who  had 
been  almost  on  the  same  level  with  the  serfs,  she  left  the 
latter  in  a  worse  condition  than  she  found  them. 

Catharine  died  on  November  17,  1796,  leaving  the  throne 
to  her  son  Paul,  a  man  in  almost  every  respect  unfit  for  the 
position,  and  the  end  of  whose  reign  came  in  a  way  not  un- 
common in  Russia,  he  being  strangled  by  conspirators  on 
March  23,  1801.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander  I. 

During  the  reign  of  Paul  the  armies  of  Russia  took  an 
active  part  in  the  wars  with  the  French  republic,  under  the 
leadership  of  the  valiant  Suvaroff,  who  was  finally  worsted, 
however,  through  the  bad  conduct  of  his  lieutenants  and  allies. 
Under  Alexander  Russia  entered  with  much  energy  into  the 
great  struggle  against  Napoleon,  aiding  Austria  and  Prussia  in 
their  wars  with  the  Corsican  conqueror.  At  the  great  battle  of 
Austerlitz  the  Russians  suffered  a  disastrous  defeat,  and  were 
later  defeated  at  Eylau  and  Friedland,  though  the  latter  defeats 
were  very  costly  ones  to  Napoleon.  These  battles  led  to  the 
treaty  of  peace  of  July,  1807,  between  Alexander  and  Napoleon, 
and  a  secret  treaty  of  alliance  between  Russia  and  France.  The 
arbitrary  commercial  measures  subsequently  taken  by  Napo- 
leon brought  on  that  great  war  with  Russia  which  put  an  end 
to  the  phenomenal  success  of  his  career. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Napoleon  at  Moscow  and  His  Terrible  Retreat 

The  Grand  Army  on  Russian  Soil — The  Mighty  Advance  of  Napoleon  and  his  Hosts — 
The  Fierce  Struggle  at  Borodina — France  in  the  Holy  City  of  Russia — Fire  and 
.'Flames  in  Moscow — The  Victors  in  a  City  of  Ashes — The  Frightful  Winter  Re- 
treat— Death  from  Sword,  Bullet  and  Frost' — A  Starving  and  Perishing  Army— 
The  Massacre  at  the  Ice-bound  Beresina — The  Fate  of  the  Grand  Army — Marshal 
Ney  and  his  Dying  Handful — The  Fall  of  Napoleon. 

ON  the  banks  of  the  Niemen,  a  river  that  flows  between 
Prussia  and  Poland,  there  gathered  near  the  end  of 
June,  1812,  an  immense  army  of  more  than  600,000 
men,  attended  by  an  enormous  multitude  of  non-combatants, 
their  purpose  being  the  invasion  of  the  empire  of  Russia.  Of 
this  great  army,  made  up  of  troops  from  half  the  nations  of 
Europe,  there  reappeared  six  months  later  on  that  broad 
stream  about  16,000  armed  men,  almost  all  that  were  left  of 
that  stupendous  host.  The  remainder  had  perished  on  the 
desert  soil  or  in  the  frozen  rivers  of  Russia,  few  of  them  sur- 
viving as  prisoners  in  Russian  hands.  Such  was  the  character 
of  the  dread  catastrophe  that  broke  the  power  of  the  mighty 
conqueror  and  delivered  Europe  from  his  autocratic  grasp. 
The  breach  of  relations  between  Napoleon  and  Alexander 
was  largely  due  to  the  arbitrary  and  highhanded  proceedings  of 
the  French  Emperor,  who  was  accustomed  to  deal  with  the  map 
of  Europe  as  if  it  represented  his  private  domain.  He  offended 
Alexander  by  enlarging  the  duchy  of  Warsaw — one  of  his  own 
creations-^ — and  deeply  incensed  him  by  extending  the  French 
empire  to  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  thus  robbing  of  his  domin- 
ion the  Duke  of  Oldenburg,  a  near  relative  of  Alexander.  On 
the  other  hand  the  Czar  declined  to  submit  the  commercial 

37 


&  NAPOLEON  AT  MOSCOW 

interests  of  his  country  to  the  rigor  of  Napoleon's  "continental 
blockade,"  and  made  a  new  tariff,  which  interfered  with  the 
importation  of  French  and  favored  that  of  English  goods. 
These  and  other  acts  in  which  Alexander  chose  to  place  his 
own  interests  in  advance  of  those  of  Napoleon  were  as  worm- 
wood to  the  haughty  soul  of  the  latter,  and  he  determined  to' 
punish  the  Russian  autocrat  as  he  had  done  the  other  mon- 
archs  of  Europe  who  refused  to  submit  to  his  dictation. 

For  a  year  or  two  before  war  was  declared  Napoleon  had 
been  preparing  for  the  greatest  struggle  of  his  life,  adding  to 
his  army  by  the  most  rigorous  methods  of  conscription  and  col- 
lecting great  magazines  of  war  material,  though  still  professing 
friendship  for  Alexander.  The  latter,  however,  was  not  decei- 
ved. He  prepared,  on  his  part,  for  the  threatened  struggle,  made 
peace  \vith  the  Turks,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Bernadotte, 
the  crown  prince  of  Sweden,  who  had  good  reason  to  be  offen- 
ded with  his  former  lord  and  master.  Napoleon,  on  his  side, 
allied  himself  with  Prussia  and  Austria,  and  added  to  his  army 
large  contingents  of  troops  from  the  German  states.  At  length 
the  great  conflict  was  ready  to  begin  between  the  two  auto- 
crats, the  Emperors  of  the  East  and  the  West,  and  Europe 
resounded  with  the  tread  of  marching  feet. 

In  the  closing  days  of  June  the  grand  army  crossed  the  Nie- 
men,  its  last  regiments  reaching  Russian  soil  by  the  opening  of 
July.  Napoleon,  with  the  advance,  pressed  on  to  Wilna,  the 
capital  of  Lithuania.  On  all  sides  the  Poles  rose  in  enthu- 
siastic hope,  and  joined  the  ranks  of  the  man  whom  they 
looked  upon  as  their  deliverer.  Onward  went  the  great  army, 
marching  with  Napoleon's  accustomed  rapidity,  seeking  to  pre- 
vent the  concentration  of  the  divided  Russian  forces,  and  ad- 
vancing daily  deeper  into  the  dominions  of  the  Czar. 

The  French  Emperor  had  his  plans  well  laid.  He  pro- 
posed to  meet  the  Russians  in  force  on  some  interior  field,  win 
from  them  one  of  his  accustomed  brilliant  victories,  crush  them 


A'l    MOSCOW  39 

with  his  enormous  columns,  and  force  the  dismayed  Czar  to 
sue  for  peace  on  his  own  terms.  But  plans  need  two  sides  for 
their  consummation,  and  the  Russian  leaders  did  not  propose 
to  lose  the  advantage  given  them  by  nature.  On  and  on  went 
Napoleon,  deeper  and  deeper  into  that  desolate  land,  but  the 
great  army  he  was  to  crush  failed  to  loom  up  before  him,  the' 
broad  plains  still  spread  onward  empty  of  soldiers,  and  disquiet 
began  to  assail  his  imperious  soul  as  he  found  the  Russian 
hosts-^  keeping  constantly  beyond  his  reach,  luring  him  ever 
.deeper  into  their  vast  territory.  In  truth  Barclay  de  Tolly, 
the  Czar's  chief  in  command,  had  adopted  a  policy  which  was 
sure  to  prove  fatal  to  Napoleon's  purpose,  that  of  persistently 
avoiding  battle  and  keeping  the  French  in  pursuit  of  a  fleeting 
will-of-the-wisp,  while  their  army  wasted  away  from  natural 
disintegration  in  that  inhospitable  clime. 

He  was  correct  in  his  views.  Desertion,  illness,  the  death' 
of  young  recruits  who  could  not  endure  the  hardships  of  rapid 
march  in  the  severe  heat  of  midsummer,  began  their  fatal  work. 
Napoleon's  plan  of  campaign  proved  a  total  failure.  The  Russi- 
ans would  not  wait  to  be  defeated,  and  each  day's  march  opened 
a  wider  circle  of  operations  before  the  advancing  host,  whom 
the  interminable  plain  filled  with  a  sense  of  hopelessness.  The 
heat  was  overpowering,  and  men  dropped  from  the  ranks  as 
rapidly  as  though  on  a  field  of  battle.  At  Vitebsk  the  army 
was  inspected,  and  the  emperor  was  alarmed  at  the  rapid  de- 
crease in  his  forces.  Some  of  the  divisions  had  lost  more  than 
a  fourth  of  their  men,  in  every  corps  the  ranks  were  depleted, 
and  reinforcements  already  had  to  be  set  on  the  march. 

Onward  they  went,  here  and  there  bringing  the  Russians 
to  bay  in  a  minor  engagement,  but  nowhere  meeting  them  in 
numbers.  Europe  waited  in  vain  for  tidings  of  a  great  battle, 
and  Napoleon  began  to  look  upon  his  proud  army  with  a  feel- 
ing akin  to  despair.  He  was  not  alone  in  his  eagerness  for 
battle.  Some  of  the  high-spirited  Russians,  among  them 


40  NAPOLEON  A  T  MOSCO  W 

Prince  Bagration,  were  as  eager,  but  as  yet  the  prudent  policy 
of  Barclay  de  Tolly  prevailed. 

On  the  1 4th  of  August,  the  army  crossed  the  Dnieper,  and 
marched,  now  175,000  strong,  upon  Smolensk,  which  was 
reached  on  the  i6th.  This  ancient  and  venerable  town  was 
dear  to  the  Russians,  and  they  made  their  first  determined 
stand  in  its  defence,  fighting  behind  its  walls  all  day  of  the 
1 7th.  Finding  that  the  assault  was  likely  to  succeed,  they  set 
fire  to  the  town  at  night  and  withdrew,  leaving  to  the  French 
a  city  in  flames.  The  bridge  was  cut,  the  Russian  army  was 
beyond  pursuit  on  the  road  to  Moscow,  nothing  had  been 
gained  by  the  struggle  but  the  ruins  of  a  town. 

The  situation  was  growing  desperate.  For  two  months 
the  army  had  advanced  without  a  battle  of  importance,  and 
was  soon  in  the  heart  of  Russia,  reduced  to  half  its  numbers, 
while  the  hoped-for  victory  seemed  as  far  off  as  ever.  And  the 
short  summer  of  the  north  was  nearing  its  end. 

The  severe  winter  of  that  climate  would  soon  begin.  Dis- 
couragement everywhere  prevailed.  Efforts  were  made  by 
Napoleon's  marshals  to  induce  him  to  give  up  the  losing  game 
and  retreat,  but  he  was  not  to  be  moved  from  his  purpose.  A 
march  on  Moscow,  the  old  capital  of  the  empire,  he  felt  sure 
would -bring  the  Russians  to  bay.  Once  within  its  walls  he 
hoped  to  dictate  terms  of  peace. 

Napoleon  was  soon  to  have  the  battle  for  which  his  soul 
craved.  Barclay's  prudent  and  successful  policy  was  not  to 
the  taste  of  many  of  the  Russian  leaders,  and  the  Czar  was  at 
length  induced  to  replace  him  by  fiery  old  Kutusoff,  who  had 
commanded  the  Russians  at  Austerlitz.  A  change  in  the 
situation  was  soon  apparent.  On  the  5th  of  September  the 
French  army  debouched  upon  the  plain  of  Borodino,  on  the 
road  to  Moscow,  and  the  Emperor  saw  with  joy  the  Russian 
army  drawn  up  to  dispute  the  way  to  the  "Holy  City"  of  the 
Muscovites,  The  dark  columns  of  the  troops  were  strongly 


NAPOLEON  AT  MOSCOW  41 

intrenched  behind  a  small  stream,  frowning  rows  of  guns  threat- 
ened the  advancing  foe,  and  hope  returned  to  the  Emperor's 
heart. 

Battle  began  early  on  the  yth,  and  continued  all  the 
day,  the  Russians  defending  their  ground  with  unyielding 
stubborness,  the  French  attacking  their  positions  with  their 
old  impetuous  dash  and  energy.  Murat  and  Ney  were  the 
heroes  of  the  day.  Again  and  again  the  Emperor  was  im- 
plored to  send  the  imperial  guard  and  overwhelm  the  foe,  but 
lie  persistently  refused.  "  If  there  is  a  second  battle  to-mor- 
row," he  said,  "what  troops  shall  I  fight  it  with  ?  It  is  not 
when  one  is  eight  hundred  leagues  from  home  that  he  risks 
his  last  resource." 

The  guard  was  not  needed.  On  the  following  day  Kutu- 
soff  was  obliged  to  withdraw,  leaving  no  less  than  40,000  dead 
and  wounded  on  the  field.  Napoleon  found  it  expedient  not  to 
pursue.  His  own  losses  aggregated  over  30,000,  among  them 
an  unusual  number  of  generals,  of  whom  ten  were  killed  and 
thirty-nine  wounded.  Napoleon  named  the  engagement  the 
Battle  of  the  Moscow,  from  the  river  that  crossed  the  plain, 
and  honored  Ney,  as  the  hero  of  the  day,  with  the  title  of  the 
Prince  of  Moscow. 

On  the  1 5th  the  Holy  City  was  reached.  A  shout  of 
"  Moscow  !  Moscow  ! "  went  up  from  the  whole  army  as  they 
gazed  on  the  gilded  cupolas  and  magnificent  buildings  of  that 
famous  city,  brilliantly  lit  up  by  the  afternoon  sun.  Twenty 
miles  in  circumference,  dazzling  with  the  green  of  its  copper 
domes  and  its  minarets  of  yellow  stone,  the  towers  and  walls 
of  the  famous  Kremlin  rising  above  its  palaces  and  gardens,  it 
seemed  like  some  fabled  city  of  the  Arabian  Nights.  With 
renewed  enthusiasm  the  troops  rushed  towards  it,  while  whole 
regiments  of  Poles  fell  on  their  knees,  thanking  God  for  deliv- 
ering this  stronghold  of  their  oppressors  into  their  hands. 

It  was  an  empty  city  into  which  the  French  marched ;  its 


42  NAPOLEON  A  T  MOSCO  W 

streets  deserted,  its  dwellings  silent.  Its  busy  life  had  van- 
ished like  a  morning  mist.  Kutusoff  had  marched  his  army 
through  it  and  left  it  to  his  foes.  The  inhabitants  were  gone, 
with  what  they  could  carry  of  their  treasures.  The  city,  like 
the  empire,  seemed  likely  to  be  a  barren  conquest,  for  here,  as 
elsewhere,  the  policy  of  retreat,  so  fatal  to  Napoleon's  hopes, 
was  put  into  effect.  The  Emperor  took  up  his  abode  in  the 
Kremlin,  within  whose  ample  precincts  he  found  quarters  for 
the  whole  imperial  guard.  The  remainder  of  the  army  was 
stationed  at  chosen  points  about  the  city.  Provisions  were 
abundant,  the  houses  and  stores  of  the  city  being  amply  sup- 
plied. The  army  enjoyed  a  luxury  of  which  it  had  been  long 
deprived,  while  Napoleon  confidently  awaited  a  triumphant 
result  from  his  victorious  progress. 

A  terrible  disenchantment  awaited  the  invader.  Early 
on  the  following  morning  word  was  brought  that  Moscow  was 
on  fire.  Flames  arose  from  houses  that  had  not  been  opened. 
It  was  evidently  a  premeditated  conflagration.  The  fire  burst 
out  at  once  in  a  dozen  quarters,  and  a  high  wind  carried  the 
flames  from  street  to  street,  from  house  to  house,  from  church 
to  church.  Russians  were  captured  who  boasted  that  they  had 
fired  the  town  under  orders  and  who  met  death  unflinchingly. 
The  governor  had  left  them  behind  for  this  fell  purpose.  The 
poorer  people,  many  of  whom  had  remained  hidden  in  their 
huts,  now  fled  in  terror,  taking  with  them  what  cherished  pos- 
sessions they  could  carry.  Soon  the  city  was  a  seething  mass 
of  flames. 

The  Kremlin  did  not  escape.  A  tower  burst  into  flames. 
In  vain  the  imperial  guard  sought  to  check  the  fire.  No  fire- 
engines  were  to  be  found  in  the  town.  Napoleon  hastily  left 
the  palace  and  sought  shelter  outside  the  city,  in  which  for 
three  days  the  flames  ran  riot,  feeding  on  ancient  palaces  and 
destroying  untold  treasures.  Then  the  wind  sank  and  rain 
poured  upon  the  smouldering  embers.  The  great  city  had 


NAPOLEON  A  T  MOSCO  W  43 

become  a  desolate  heap  of  smoking  ruins,  into  which  the  sol- 
diers daringly  stole  back  in  search  of  valuables  that  might 
have  escaped  the  flames. 

Napoleon,  sadly  troubled  in  soul,  sent  letters  to  Alexander, 
suggesting  the  advisability  of  peace.  Alexander  left  his  letters 
•unanswered.  Until  October  i8th  the  Emperor  waited,  hoping 
^against  hope,  willing  to  grant  almost  any  terms  for  an  oppor- 
tunity to  escape  from  the  fatal  trap  into  which  his  overweening 
ambition  had  led  him.  No  answer  came  from  the  Czar.  He 
was  inflexible  in  his  determination  not  to  treat  with  these 
invaders  of  his  country.  In  deep  dejection  Napoleon  at 
length  gave  the  order  to  retreat — too  late,  as  it  was  to  prove, 
since  the  terrible  Russian  winter  was  ready  to  descend  upon 
them  in  all  its  frightful  strength. 

The  army  that  left  that  ruined  city  was  a  sadly  depleted 
one.  It  had  been  reduced  to  103,000  men.  The  army  follow- 
ers had  also  become  greatly  decreased  in  numbers,  but  still 
formed  a  host,  among  them  delicate  ladies,  thinly  clad,  who 
gazed  with  terrified  eyes  from  their  traveling  carriages  upon 
the  dejected  troops.  Articles  of  plunder  of  all  kinds  were 
carried  by  the  soldiers,  even  the  wounded  in  the  wagons  lying 
amid  the  spoil  they  had  gathered.  The  Kremlin  was  destroyed 
by  the  rear  guard,  under  Napoleon's  orders,  and  over  the  dreary 
Russian  plains  the  retreat  began. 

It  was  no  sooner  under  way  than  the  Russian  policy 
changed.  From  retreating,  the  troops  everywhere  advanced, 
seeking  to  annoy  and  cut  off  the  enemy,  and  utterly  to  destroy 
the  fugitive  army  if  possible.  A  stand  was  made  at  the  town  of 
Maloi-Yaroslavitz,  where  a  sanguinary  combat  took  place.  The 
French  captured  the  town,  but  10,000  men  lay  dead  or 
wounded  on  the  field,  while  Napoleon  was  forced  to  abandon 
his  projected  line  of  march,  and  to  return  by  the  route  he  had 
followed  in  his  advance  on  Moscow.  From  the  bloody  scene 
of  contest  the  retreat  continued,  the  battlefield  of  Borodino 


44  NAPOLEON  A  T  MOSCO  W 

being  crossed,  and,  by  the  middle  of  November  the  ruins  cf 
Smolensk  were  reached. 

Winter  was  now  upon  the  French  in  all  its  fury.  The 
food  brought  from  Moscow  had  been  exhausted.  Famine, 
frost,  and  fatigue  had  proved  more  fatal  than  the  bullets  of  the 
enemy.  In  fourteen  days  after  reaching  Moscow  the  army 
lost  43,000  men,  leaving  it  only  60,000  strong.  On  reaching 
Smolensk  it  numbered  but- 42,000,  having  lost  18,000  more 
within  eight  days.  The  unarmed  followers  are  said  to  have  still 
numbered  60,000.  Worse  still,  the  supply  of  arms  and  provi- 
sions ordered  to  be  ready  at  Smolensk  was  in  great  part  lacking, 
only  rye-flour  and  rice  being  found.  Starvation  threatened  to 
aid  the  winter  cold  in  the  destruction  of  the  feeble  remnant  of 
the  "  Grand  Army." 

Onward  went  the  despairing  host,  at  every  step  harassed 
by  the  Russians,  who  followed  like  wolves  on  their  path.  Ney, 
in  command  of  the  rear-guard,  was  the  hero  of  the  retreat. 
Cut  off  by  the  Russians  from  the  main  column,  and  apparently 
lost  beyond  hope,  he  made  a  wonderful  escape  by  crossing  the 
Dnieper  on  the  ice  during  the  night  and  rejoining  his  compan- 
ions, who  had  given  up  the  hope  of  ever  seeing  him  again. 

On  the  26th  the  ice-cold  river  Beresina  was  reached,  des- 
tined to  be  the  most  terrible  point  on  the  whole  dreadful 
march.  Two  bridges  were  thrown  in  all  haste  across  the 
stream,  and  most  of  the  men  under  arms  crossed,  but  18,000 
stragglers  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  How  many  were 
trodden  to  death  in  the  press  or  were  crowded  from  the  bridge 
into  the  icy  river  cannot  be  told.  It  is  said  that  when  spring 
thawed  the  ice  30,000  bodies  were  found  and  burned  on  the 
banks  of  the  stream.  A  mere  fragment  of  the  great  army 
remained  alive.  Ney  was  the  last  man  to  cross  that  frightful 
stream. 

On  the  3d  of  December  Napoleon  issued  a  bulletin  which 
has  become  famous,  telling  the  anxious  nations  of  Europe  that 


NAPOLEON  A  T  MOSCO  W  45 

the  grand  army  was  annihilated,  but  the  Emperor  was  safe. 
Two  days  afterwards  he  surrendered  the  command  of  the  army 
to  Murat  and  set  out  at  all  speed  for  Paris,  where  his  presence 
was  indispensably  necessary.  On  the  i3th  of  December  some 
16,000  haggard  and  staggering  men,  almost  too  weak  to  hold 
the  arms  to  which  they  still  despairingly  clung,  recrossed  the 
Niemen,  which  the  grand  army  had  passed  in  such  magnificent 
strength  and  with  such  abounding  resources  less  than  six 
months  before.  It  was  the  greatest  and  most  astounding  dis- 
aster in  the  military  history  of  the  world. 

This  tale  of  terror  may  be  fitly  closed  by  a  dramatic  story 
told  by  General  Mathieu  Dumas,  who,  while  sitting  at  break- 
fast in  Gumbinnen,  saw  enter  a  haggard  man,  with  long  beard, 
blackened  face,  and  red  and  glaring  eyes. 

"  I  am  here  at  last !  "  he  exclaimed.  "  Don't  you  know 
me?" 

"  No,"  said  the  general.     "  Who  are  you  ?" 

"  I  am  the  rear-guard  of  the  Grand  Army.  I  have  fired 
the  last  musket-shot  on  the  bridge  of  Kowno.  I  have  thrown 
the  last  of  our  arms  into  the  Niemen,  and  come  hither  through 
the  woods.  I  am  Marshal  Ney." 

"  This  is  the  beginning  of  the  end,"  said  the  shrewd  Talley- 
rand, when  Napoleon  set  out  on  his  Russian  campaign.  The 
remark  proved  true ;  the  disaster  in  Russia  had  loosened  the 
grasp  of  the  Corsican  on  the  throat  of  Europe,  and  the 
nations,  which  hated  as  much  as  they  feared  their  ruthless 
enemy,  made  active  preparations  for  his  overthrow.  While  he 
was  in  France,  actively  gathering  men  and  materials  for  a 
renewed  struggle,  signs  of  an  implacable  hostility  began  to 
manifest  themselves  on  all  sides  in  the  surrounding  states. 
Belief  in  the  invincibility  of  Napoleon  had  vanished,  and  little 
fear  was  entertained  of  the  raw  conscripts  whom  he  was  forc- 
ing into  the  ranks  to  replace  his  slaughtered  veterans. 

With  all  Europe  rising  behind  him  as  he  retreated,  all  the 


46  NAPOLEON  A  T  MOSCO  W 

efforts  of  the  great  conqueror  proved  in  vain,  and  he  was  driven 
back,  step  by  step,  until  the  allied  armies  of  Russia,  Austria, 
Prussia  and  England  closed  in  on  him  like  hounds  round  the 
wolf  at  bay,  and  he  was  forced  to  abdicate  his  throne  and 
exchange  the  dominion  of  half  Europe  for  a  toy  kingdom  on 
the  little  isle  of  Elba.  His  return  to  France  and  the  famous 
"Hundred  Days'"  struggle,  ending  with  the- final  defeat  at 
Waterloo,  were  but  the  last  desperate  struggles  of  a  ruined 
man.  St.  Helena  followed  Elba,  and  his  career  was  at  an 
end.  But  the  fall  of  the  mighty  Napoleon  began  when  he  set 
his  foot  on  the  soil  of  Russia  in  his  fatal  march  to  Moscow 
and  its  flames. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Wars  of  Russia  with  Turkey 

Constantinople  the  Great  Goal  of  Russia — The  Great  War  in  the  Crimea— England 
and  France  in  Arms — The  Valiant  Attacks  on  the  Mighty  Stronghold  of  Sebas- 

.*'  topol — Defeat  of  Russia  and  Triumph  of  Turkey  and  Her  Allies — The  Bulgarian 
Powers  of  1876— Russia  in  Arms  Again — The  Balkan  Crossed — Under  the  Walls  of 
Constantinople — The  Powers  of  Europe  Rob  Russia  of  Her  Prey. 

AMONG  the  most  interesting  phases  of  nineteenth-century 
history  is  that  of  the  conflict  between  Russia  and  Tur- 
key, a  struggle  for  dominion  that  came  down  from  the 
preceding  centuries,  and  still  seems  only  temporarily  laid 
aside  for  final  settlement  in  the  years  to  come.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  the  Turks  proved  quite  able  to  hold  their  own 
against  all  the  power  of  Russia  and  all  the  armies  of  Catharine 
the  Great,  and  they  entered  the  nineteenth  century  with  their 
ancient  dominion  largely  intact.  But  they  were  declining  in 
strength  while  Russia  was  growing,  and  long  before  1900  the 
empire  of  the  Sultan  would  have  become  the  prey  of  the  Czar 
had  not  the  other  powers  of  Europe  come  to  the  rescue.  The 
Czar  Nicholas  designated  the  Sultanas  "the  sick  man  "of 
Europe,  and  such  he  and  his  empire  have  truly  become. 

The  ambitious  designs  of  Russia  found  abundant  warrant 
in  the  cruel  treatment  of  the  Christian  people  of  Turkey.  A 
number  of  Christian  kingdoms  lay  under  the  Sultan's  rule,  in 
the  South  inhabited  by  Greeks,  in  the  north  by  Slavs ;  their 
people  treated  always  with  harshness  and  tyranny ;  their 
every  attempt  at  revolt  repressed  with  savage  cruelty.  The 
Greeks,  thus  harassed,  rebelled  against  their  oppressors  in 
1821,  and,  with  the  aid  of  Europe,  won  their  freedom  in  1829. 
Stirred  by  this  struggle,  Russia  declared  war  against  Turkey  in 

47 


43  THE  WARS  OF  RUSSIA   WITH  TURKEY 

1828  and,  in  the  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Adrianople  in  1829^ 
secured  not  only  the  independence  of  Greece,  but  a  large 
degree  of  home-rule  for  the  northern  principalities  of  Servia, 
Moldavia,  and  Wallachia.  Turkey  was  forced  in  a  measure  to 
loosen  her  grip  on  Christian  Europe.  But  the  Russians  were 
not  satisfied  with  this.  They  had  got  next  to  nothing  for 
themselves.  England  and  the  other  Western  powers,  fearful 
of  seeing  Russia  in  possession  of  Constantinople,  had  forced 
her  to  release  the  fruits  of  her  victory.  It  was  the  first  step  in 
that  jealous  watchfulness  of  England  over  Constantinople 
which  was  to  have  a  more  decided  outcome  in  later  years. 
The  new-born  idea  of  maintaining  the  balance  of  power  in 
Europe  stood  in  Russia's  way,  the  nations  of  the  West  view- 
ing in  alarm  the  threatening  growth  of  the  great  Muscovite 
Empire. 

The  ambitious  Czar  Nicholas  looked  upon  Turkey  as  his 
destined  prey,  and  waited  with  impatience  a  sufficient  excuse 
to  send  his  armies  again  to  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  whose 
mountain  barrier  formed  the  great  natural  bulwark  of  Turkey 
in  the  north.  Though  the  Turkish  government  at  this  time 
avoided  direct  oppression  of  its  Christian  subjects,  the  fanati- 
cal Mohammedans  were  difficult  to  restrain,  and  the  robbery 
and  murder  of  Christians  were  of  common  occurrence.  A 
source  of  hostility  at  length  arose  from  the  question  of  protect- 
ing these  ill-treated  people.  By  favor  of  old  treaties  the  Czar 
claimed  a  certain  right  to  protect  the  Christians  of  the  Greek 
faith.  France  assumed  a  similar  protectorate  over  the  Roman 
Catholics  of  Palestine,  but  the  greater  number  of  Greek 
Christians  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  the  powerful  support  of  the 
Czar,  gave  those  the  advantage  in  the  frequent  quarrels  which 
arose  in  Jerusalem  between  the  pilgrims  from  the  East  and 
the  West. 

Nicholas,  instigated  by  his  advantage  in  this  quarter,  deter- 
mined to  declare  himself  the  protector  of  all  the  Christians 


THE  WARS  OF  RUSSIA   WITH  TURKEY  ^9 

in  the  Turkish  Empire,  a  claim  which  the  Sultan  dared 
not  admit  if  he  wished  to  hold  control  over  his  Mohammedan 
subjects.  War  was  in  the  air,  and  England  and  France,  resolute 
to  preserve  the  "  balance  of  power,"  sent  their  fleets  to  the 
Dardanelles  as  useful  lookers-on. 

The  Sultan  had  already  rejected  the  Russian  demand,  and 
Nicholas  lost  no  time  in  sending  an  army,  led  by  Prince  Gort- 
chakof.  with  orders  to  cross  the  Pruth  and  take  possession  of 
the  Turkish  provinces  on  the  Danube.  The  gauntlet  had 
been  thrown  down.  War  was  inevitable.  The  English  news- 
papers demanded  of  their  government  a  vigorous  policy.  The 
old  Turkish  party  in  Constantinople  was  equally  urgent  in  its 
demand  for  hostilities.  At  length,  on  October  4,  1853,  the 
Sultan  declared  war  against  Russia  unless  the  Danubian  prin- 
cipalities should  be  at  once  evacuated.  Instead  of  doing  so, 
Nicholas  ordered  his  generals  to  invade  the  Balkan  territory, 
and  on  the  other  hand  France  and  England  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  the  Porte  and  sent  their  fleets  to  the  Bosporus. 
Shortly  afterwards  the  Russian  Admiral  Nachimoff  surprised 
a  Turkish  squadron  in  the  harbor  of  Sinope,  attacked  it,  and 
— though  the  Turks  fought  with  the  greatest  courage — the 
ships  were  destroyed  and  nearly  the  whole  of  their  crews  were 
slain. 

This  turned  the  tide  in  England  and  France,  which 
declared  war  in  1854,  while  Prussia  and  Austria  maintained  a 
waiting  attitude.  No  event  of  special  importance  took  place 
early  in  the  war.  In  April.  Lord  Raglan,  with  an  English 
army  of  20,000  men,  landed  in  Turkey  and  the  siege  of  the 
Russian  city  of  Odessa  was  begun.  Meanwhile  the  Russians 
who  had  crossed  the  Danube,  found  it  advisable  to  retreat  and 
withdraw  across  the  Pruth,  on  a  threat  of  hostilities  from  Aus- 
tria and  Prussia  unless  the  principalities  were  evacuated. 

The  French  had  met  with  heavy  losses  in  an  advance 
from  Varna,  and  the  British  fleet  had  made  an  expedition 
4 


50  THE  WARS  OF  RUSSIA    WITH  TURKEY 

against  St.  Petersburg,  but  had  been  checked  before  the  pow- 
erful fortress  of  Cronstadt.  Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  in 
the  summer  of  1854,  when  the  allies  determined  to  carry  the 
war  into  the  enemy's  territory,  attack  the  maritime  city  of 
Sebastopol  in  the  Crimea,  and  seek  to  destroy  the  Russian 
naval  power  in  the  Black  Sea. 

Of  the  allied  armies  15,000  men  had  already  perished. 
With  the  remaining  forces,  rather  more  than  50,000  British 
and  French  and  6,000  Turks,  the  fleet  set  sail  in  September 
across  the  Black  Sea,  and  landed  near  Eupatoria  on  the  west 
coast  of  the  Crimean  peninsula,  on  the  4th  of  September, 
1854.  Southward  from  Eupatoria  the  sea  forms  a  bay,  into 
which,  near  the  ruins  of  the  old  town  of  Inkermann,  the  little 
river  Tachernaja  pours  itself.  On  its  southern  side  lies  the 
fortified  town  of  Sebastopol ;  on  its  northern  side  strong  fortifi- 
cations were  raised  for  the  defence  of  the  fleet  of  war  which 
lay  at  anchor  in  the  bay.  Farther  north  the  western  moun- 
tain range  is  intersected  by  the  river  Alma,  over  which  Prince 
Menshikoff,  Governor  of  the  Crimea,  garrisoned  the  heights 
with  an  army  of  30,000  men.  Against  the  latter  the  allies 
first  directed  their  attack,  and,  in  spite  of  the  strong  position 
of  the  Russians  on  the  rocky  slopes,  Menshikoff  was  compelled 
to  retreat,  owing  his  escape  from  entire  destruction  only  to  the 
want  of  cavalry  in  the  army  of  the  allies.  This  dearly  bought 
and  bloody  victory  on  the  Alma  gave  rise  to  hopes  of  a  speedy  | 
termination  of  the  campaign  ;  but  the  allies,  weakened  and 
wearied  by  the  fearful  struggle,  delayed  a  further  attack,  and 
Menshikoff  gained  time  to  strengthen  his  garrison,  and  to  sur- 
round Sebastopol  with  strong  fortifications.  When  the  allies 
approached  the  town  they  were  soon  convinced  that  any  attack 
on  such  formidable  defences  would  be  fruitless,  and  that  they 
must  await  the  arrival  of  fresh  reinforcements  and  ammunition. 
The  English  took  up  their  position  on  the  Bay  of  Balaklava, 
and  the  French  to  the  west,  on  the  Kamiesch. 


UP   KUSS1A    W11H   '1UKKEY  51 

There  now  commenced  a  siege  such  as  has  seldom  occur- 
red in  the  history  of  the  world.  The  first  attempt  to  storm 
the  works  by  a  united  attack  of  the  land  army  and  the  fleet 
showed  the  resistance  to  be  much  more  formidable  than  had 
been  expected  by  the  allies.  Eight  days  later  the  English  were 
surprised  in  their  strong  position  near  Balaklava  by  General 
Liprandi.  The  battle  of  Balaklava  was  decided  in  favor  of  the 
allies,  as  was  also  the  battle  of  Inkermann,  fought  on  the  5th 
of  Nqvember. 

In  the  battle  of  Balaklava  took  place  that  heroic  "  Charge 
of  the  Light  Brigade,"  which  has  become  famous  in  song  and 
story.  Under  a  mistake  in  orders,  the  "gallant  six  hundred" 
charged  headlong  upon  a  Russian  battery  half  a  league  away, 
with  other  guns  raking  them  from  the  flank,  and  death  envel- 
oping them  on  all  sides.  In  among  the  guns  they  dashed,  cut- 
ting down  the  gunners  at  their  pieces,  and  then,  when  the 
order  came  to  retreat,  the  bleeding  remnant  spurred  their 
horses  to  the  backward  ride  through  an  iron  shower.  One 
group  of  about  seventy  men  cut  their  way  through  three 
squadrons  of  Russian  lancers.  Another  party  of  equal  strength 
broke  through  a  second  intercepting  force.  Out  of  some  647 
men  in  all,  247  were  killed  and  wounded,  and  nearly  all  their 
horses  were  slain.  Lord  Cardigan,  the  first  to  enter  the  bat- 
tery, was  one  of  those  who  came  back  alive.  The  whole,  affair 
had  occupied'  no  more  than  twenty  minutes.  But  it  was  a 
twenty  minutes  of  which  the  British  nation  has  ever  since  been 
proud,  and  which  Tennyson  has  made  famous  by  one  of  the 
most  spirit-stirring  of  his  odes.  The  French  General  Bosquet 
fairly  characterized  the  affair  by  his  often  quoted  remark : 
"  Cest  magnifique,  mats  ce  nest  pas  la  guerre."  (It  is  magnifi 
cent,  but  it  is  not  war.) 

In  the  year  1855  the  war  was  carried  on  with  increased 
energy.  Sardinia  joined  the  allies  and  sent  them  an  army  of 
1 5,000  men.  Austria  broke  with  Russia  and  began  preparations 


52  THE  WARS  OF  RUSSIA   WITH  TURKEY 

for  war.  And  In  March  the  obstinate  Czar  Nicholas  died 
and  his  milder  son  Alexander  took  his  place.  Peace  was 
demanded  in  Russia,  yet  25,000  of  her  sons  had  fallen  and  the 
honor  of  the  nation  \vas  involved.  The  war  went  on,  both 
sides  increasing  their  forces.  Month  by  month  the  allies  more 
closely  invested  the  besieged  city.  After  the  middle  of  August 
the  assault  became  almost  incessant,  cannon  balls  dropping 
like  an  unceasing  storm  of  hail  in  forts  and  streets. 

On  the  5th  of  September  began  a  terrific  bombardment, 
continuing  day  and  night  for  three  days,  and  sweeping  down 
5,000  Russians  on  the  ramparts.  At  length,  as  the  hour  of 
noon  struck  on  September  8th,  the  attack  of  which  this  play 
of  artillery  was  the  prelude  began,  the  French  assailing  the 
Malakoff,  the  British  the  Redan,  these  being  the  most  formid- 
able of  the  defensive  works  of  the  town.  The  French  assault 
was  successful,  and  Sebastopol  became  untenable.  That  night 
the  Russians  blew  up  their  remaining  forts,  sunk  their  ships  of 
war,  and  marched  out  of  the  town,  leaving  it  as  the  prize  of 
victory  to  the  allies.  Soon  after  Russia  gained  a  success  by 
capturing  the  Turkish  fortress  of  Kars,  in  Asia  Minor,  and, 
her  honor  satisfied  with  this  success,  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded.  In  this  treaty  the  Black  Sea  was  made  neutral 
and  all  ships  of  war  were  excluded  from  its  waters,  while  the 
safety  of  the  Christians  of  Wallachia,  Moldavia  and  Servia 
was  assured  by  making  these  principalities  practically  indepen- 
dent, under  the  protection  of  the  powers  of  Europe. 

Turkey  came  out  of  the  war  weakened  and  shorn  of  ter- 
ritory. But  the  Turkish  idea  of  government  remained  un- 
changed, and  in  twenty  years'  time  Russia  was  fairly  goaded 
into  another  war.  In  1875  Bosnia  rebelled  in  consequence  of 
the  insufferable  oppression  of  the  Turkish  tax-collectors.  The 
brave  Bosnians  maintained  themselves  so  sturdily  in  their 
mountain  fastnesses  that  the  Turks  almost  despaired  of  sub- 
duing them,  and  the  Christian  subjects  of  the  Sultan  in  all 


THE  WARS  GF  RUSSIA   WITH  TURKEY  53 

quarters  became  so  stirred  up  that  a  general  revolt  was 
threatened. 

The  Turks  undertook  to  prevent  this  in  their  usual 
fashion.  Irregular  troops  were  sent  into  Christian  Bulgaria 
with  orders  to  kill  all  they  met.  It  was  an  order  to  the 
Mohammedan  taste.  The  defenceless  villages  of  Bulgaria 
were  entered  and  the  inhabitants  slaughtered  in  cold  blood, 
till  thousands  of  men,  women  and  children  had  been  slain. 

yVhen  tidings  of  these  atrocities  reached  Europe,  the 
nations  were  filled  with  horror.  The  Sultan  made  smooth 
excuses,  and  diplomacy  sought  to  settle  the  affair,  but  it  became 
evident  that  a  massacre  so  terrible  as  this  could  not  be  con- 
doned so  easily.  Disraeli,  then  prime  minister  of  Great 
Britain,  sought  to  dispose  of  these  reports  as  matters  for  jest ; 
but  Gladstone,  at  that  time  in  retirement,  arose  in  his  might, 
and  by  his  pamphlet  on  the  "  Bulgarian  Horrors"  so  aroused 
public  sentiment  in  England  that  the  government  dared  not 
sustain  Turkey  in  the  coming  war. 

Hostilities  were  soon  proclaimed.  Th'e  Russians — of  the 
same  race  and  religious  sect  as  the  Bulgarians — were  excited 
beyond  control,  and  in  April,  1877,  Alexander  II  declared  war 
against  Turkey.  The  outrages  of  the  Turks  had  been  so  fla- 
grant that  no  allies  came  to  their  aid,  while  the  rottenness  of 
their  empire  was  shown  by  the  rapid  advance  of  the  Russian 
armies. 

They  crossed  the  Danube  in  June.  In  a  month  they 
had  occupied  the  principal  passes  of  the  Balkan  mountains  and 
were  in  position  to  descend  on  the  broad  plain  that  led  to  Con- 
stantinople. But  at  this  point  in  their  career  they  met  with  a 
serious  check.  Osman  Pasha,  the  single  Turkish  commander 
of  ability  that  the  war  developed,  occupied  the  town  of  Plevna 
with  such  forces  as  he  could  gather,  fortified  it  as  strongly  as 
possible,  and  from  behind  its  walls  defied  the  Russians. 

They  dared  not  advance  and  leave  this  stronghold  in  their 


54  THE  WARS  OF  RUSSIA   WITH  TURKEY 

rear.  For  five  months  all  the  power  of  Russia  and  the  skill  of 
its  generals  were  held  in  check  by  this  brave  man  and  his  few 
followers,  until  Europe  and  America  alike  looked  on  with 
admiration  at  his  remarkable  defence,  in  view  of  which  the 
cause  of  the  war  was  almost  forgotten.  The  Russian  general 
Krudener  was  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  8,000  men.  The  dar- 
ing Skobeleff  strove  in  vain  to  launch  his  troops  over  Osman's 
walls.  At  length  General  Todleben  undertook  the  siege, 
adopting  the  slow  but  safe  method  of  starving  out  the 
defenders.  At  the  head  of  his  brave  garrison  the  "  Lion  of 
Plevna  "  sallied  from  the  city,  and  fought  with  desperate  cour- 
age to  break  through  the  circle  of  his  foes.  He  was  finally 
driven  back  into  the  city  and  compelled  to  surrender. 

Osman  had  won  glory,  and  his  fall  was  the  fall  of  the 
Turkish  cause.  The  Russians  crossed  the  Balkan,  capturing 
in  the  Schipka  Pass  a  Turkish  army  of  30,000  men.  Adrian- 
ople  was  taken,  and  the  Turkish  line  of  retreat  cut  off.  The 
Russians  marched  to  the  Bosporus,  and  the  Sultan  was  com- 
pelled to  sue  for  peace  to  save  his  capital  from  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  Christians,  as  it  had  fallen  into  those  of  the 
Turks  four  centuries  before. 

Russia  had  won  the  game  for  which  she  had  made  so  long 
a  struggle.  The  treaty  of  Santo  Stefano  practically  decreed  the 
dissolution  of  the  Turkish  empire.  But  at  this  juncture  the 
other  nations  of  Europe  took  part.  They  were  not  content  to 
see  the  balance  of  power  destroyed  by  Russia  becoming  master 
of  Constantinople,  and  England  demanded  that  the  treaty 
should  be  revised  by  the  European  powers.  Russia  protested, 
but  Disraeli  threatened  war,  and  the  Czar  gave  way.  The 
Congress  of  Berlin,  to  which  the  treaty  was  referred,  settled 
the  question  by  decreeing  the  independence  of  Montenegro, 
Roumania  and  Servia,  and  the  partial  freedom  of  Bulgaria. 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were  placed  under  the  control  of 
Austria,  and  Russia  obtained  some  provinces  in  Asia  Minor 


CHAPTER  V. 

Recent  Emperors  of  Russia  and  Their  Reigns 

Nicholas  I  on  the  Throne — An  Advocate  of  Despotism — The  Acts  of  the  Autocrat- 
War  with  Turkey— The  Great  Revolt  of  the  Poles — Harsh  Treatment  of  Poland— 
Cracaw  Loses  its  Liberty — Russia  in  Hungary — The  War  in  the  Caucasus — 
•  Schaniyl's  Brilliant  Defence — The  Crimean  War — Alexander  II  and  the  Freeing 
of  the  Serfs — Other  Reforms — Poland  in  Arms  Again — Other  "Military  Affairs — 
The  Dread  Work  of  the  Nihilists — Alexander  III  and  His  Autocratic  Measures — 
Nicholas  II  and  the  Great  Peace  Conference — The  Harsh  Treatment  of  Finland — 
Movements  of  Russia  in  Asia. 

ALEXANDER  I,  famous  among  the  Czars  of  Russia  for 
his  relation  to  the  career  of  Napoleon  and  his  promi- 
nent share  in  the  overthrow  of  the  great  conqueror,  died 
on  the  ist  of  December,  1825,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  brother 
Nicholas,  Constantine,  the  elder  brother,  a  man  in  many  re- 
spects unfitted  for  the  throne,  having  renounced  his  claim  in 
1822.  The  new  Czar  was  twenty  years  younger  than  his 
brother  Alexander,  being  twe'nty-nine  years  of  age  on  taking 
the  throne.  He  delayed  doing  this  until  Constantine  should 
confirm  his  renunciation,  with  the  unfortunate  result  of 
bringing  on  a  revolt  in  the  army  in  favor  of  Constantine  and 
ia  constitutional  government.  The  revolt  was  not  put  down 
without  bloodshed,  and  it  left  an  indelible  impression  in  favor 
of  autocratic  rule  in  the  mind  of  the  new  Czar,  He  had  been 
trained  in  the  midst  of  the  tyrannical  reaction  that  followed  the 
fall  of  Napoleon,  and  was,  in  addition,  despotic  by  nature,  and 
the  determination  became  fixed  in  his  mind  never  to  relax  the 
grasp  of  autocratic  authority. 

Foulke,  in  his  suggestive  "  Slav  or  Saxon,"  speaks  of 
Nicholas  and  his  despotism  as  follows  :  "  It  is  characteristic  of 
Russian  ignorance  of  all  notions  of  freedom,  that  when  the 

55 


56  RECEN7  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA 

cry  of  '  Long  live  the  Constitution  ! '  was  raised,  the  soldiers 
believed  that  the  word  '  Constitution  '  referred  to  the  wife  of 
the  Grand  Duke,  Constantine,  whom  they  thought  lawfully 
entitled  to  the  throne."  Pastel,  the  leading  spirit  of  this  unripe 
movement  for  liberty,  said  :  "  I  tried  to  gather  the  harvest 
without  sowing  the  seed."  Nicholas  was  the  incarnation  of 
despotism.  His  tyranny  cut  Russia  off  from  communication 
with  Western  Europe.  The  severity  of  the  censorship  under 
his  reign,  the  restrictions  upon  travel  and  education,  and  the 
inquisitorial  methods  of  his  police  can  hardly  be  believed  by 
those  accustomed  to  liberty.  The  most  stringent  regulations 
were  made  concerning  tutors  and  governesses  ;  their  morality, 
including  their  political  opinions,  must  be  certified  to  by  one 
of  the  universities.  It  was  forbidden  to  send  young  men  to 
study  in  Western  colleges,  and  every  obstacle  was  thrown  in 
the  way  of  foreign  travel  and  residence.  Philosophy  could 
not  be  taught  in  the  universities.  This  branch  of  knowledge 
was  put  under  the  control  of  ignorant  ecclesiastics.  It  is  easy 
to  imagine  how  it  flourished  under  such  care.  The  press  be- 
came the  instrument  of  reaction.  A  newspaper  which  advo- 
cated the  ideas  of  Adam  Smith  was  regarded  as  dangerous, 
and  suppressed.  The  daily  journals  themselves  began  to  wage 
war  against  liberty  of  thought  and  all  foreign  innovations.  It 
is  melancholy  to  contemplate  the  misfortunes  which  Russia 
suffered  under  the  stern  rule  of  Nicholas. 

The  tutors  of  Nicholas  were  all  military,  and  while  still 
young  he  identified  himself  with  military  affairs,  becoming  so 
completely  a  soldier  that  he  could  not  even  bear  to  dress  in 
civil  costume.  His  accession  was  quickly  followed  by  war 
with  Turkey,  brought  about  by  the  Greek  struggle  for  liberty. 
Russia  took  part  in  the  memorable  destruction  of  the  Turkish 
fleet  at  Navarino,  and  a  war,  in  which  Nicholas  was  present  in 
person,  began  with  Turkey  in  1828.  Of  the  results  of  this  war 
we  have  elsewhere  spoken. 


RECENT  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA  57 

The  conclusion  of  this  conflict  was  quickly  followed  by  a 
patriotic  outbreak  of  the  people  of  Poland,  who  bitterly 
resented  the  loss  of  their  ancient  liberty  and  the  tyranny  to 
which  they  were  subjected.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  and  an 
insurrection  began  on  September  29,  1830.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  seize  the  Grand  Duke  Constantine,  whose  brutal 
measures  had  provoked  the  revolt,  and  many  Russians  were 
slain  in  the  streets  of  Warsaw.  The  Poles  raised  an  army  of 
9O/X)O  men.  The  Russians  invaded  their  country  with  1 20,000. 
Several  bloody  battles  were  fought,  with  varied  success,  but  in 
August,  1831,  a  Russian  army  marched  on  Warsaw,  which, 
after  a  heroic  defense,  was  forced  to  surrender  on  the  yth  of 
September.  The  result  of  this  war  was  to  take  from  Poland 
what  few  vestiges  of  its  old  freedom  it  retained.  Its  flag  of 
the  white  eagle,  which  had  flown  over  so  many  victories,  was 
abolished.  Its  army  was  incorporated  with  that  of  Russia.  Its 
higher  schools  were  suppressed,  its  rich  libraries  carried  off  to 
St.  Petersburg,  and,  finally,  the  constitution  granted  by 
Alexander  I  was  taken  from  it  and  Poland  declared  a  Russian 
province.  Such  was  the  way  of  Nicholas  in  dealing  with 
Polish  patriotism. 

In  1846  the  Poles  were  again  in  arms.  The  independ- 
ence of  Cracow  and  its  small  territory  had  been  guaranteed 
by  treaty,  but  Nicholas  did  not  hesitate  to  march  troops  into 
the  city  to  suppress  an  insurrection  that  had  broken  out 
against  Austria.  The  insurgents  were  soon  put  down  by  their 
two  great  enemies,  and  the  Russian  troops  w^re  withdrawn, 
leaving  Austria  free  to  annex  the  dominion  of  Cracow  and 
put  an  end  to  this  last  remnant  of  the  once  great  kingdom  of 
Poland. 

A  much  more  threatening  outbreak  of  the  peoples  of 
Eastern  Europe  was  that  of  the  Hungarians  against  Austria 
in  1849,  as  one  of  the  consequences  of  the  French  revolution 
of  1848.  Hotly  pressed  by  the  Magyars  of  Hungary,  the 


6S  RECENT  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA 

Austrian  Emperor  appealed  to  his  brother  of  Russia  for  aid, 
and  Nicholas  responded  by  sending  into  Hungary  an  army 
nearly  200,000  strong.  Brave  and  ably  led  as  were  the  Hun- 
garians, they  could  not  long  make  head  against  Russia  and 
Austria  combined,  and  despotism  triumphed  over  their  un- 
happy land,  the  end  of  the  war  being  followed  by  a  display  of 
brutality  and  cruelty  on  the  part  of  Austria  that  excited  the1 
indignation  of  Europe. 

These  military  movements  in  the  West  were  matched  by 
others  of  greater  moment  to  Russia  in  the  East.  While  the 
war  of  1828  with  Turkey  was  going  on  Russian  troops  were 
sent  into  the  mountain  land  of  the  Caucasus,  between  the 
Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  and  a  vigorous  invasion  of  Asiatic 
Turkey  was  made  by  this  route.  With  a  force  of  12,000  men 
General  Paskevitch  captured  in  four  days  the  strong  fortress 
of  Kars,  which  had  long  defied  all  its  foes.  Then,  leading  his 
men  over  mountains  deemed  impassable,  the  Russian  general 
attacked  tfye  highland  fortress  of  Akhalzikh,  in  the  heart  of 
Circassia. 

The  siege  of  this  stronghold  continued  for  three  weeks, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  the  supplies  of  the  Russians  were 
exhausted,  and  it  became  necessary  to  abandon  the  siege  or 
attempt  to  take  the  place  by  storm,  with  the  danger  of  utter 
destruction  by  the  hostile  army,  five  times  their  strength. 

Paskevitch  had  the  courage  to  attempt  the  latter  course. 
On  the  26th  of  August,  at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  the 
storming  column,  led  by  Colonel  Borodin,  commenced  the 
assault,  and  after  incredible  resistance  forced  its  way  into  the 
town.  Here  a  desperate  struggle  awaited  them.  It  was 
necessary  to  carry  by  storm  each  house  in  succession,  and 
every  step  in  advance  was  dearly  bought.  The  battle  lasted 
all  night  in  the  midst  of  a  conflagration,  which  extended  over 
the  whole  city.  Several  times  fortune  seemed  to  favor  the 
enemy,  who  were  very  numerous.  The  Russian  commander, 


RECENT  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA  59 

however,  skilfully  kept  back  the  weakest  of  his  columns,  sent 
regiment  after  regiment  into  the  engagement,  and  was  eventu- 
ally victorious.  On  the  morning  of  the  28th  of  August  the 
flag  of  St.  George  waved  over  the  fortress  of  Akhalzikh,  and 
Russia  had  won  a  powerful  centre  of  operations  in  the  Asiatic 
district  of  Georgia. 

The  bold  mountaineers  of  Circassia,  however,  who  had 
maintained  their  independence  from  time  immemorial,  were 
not  59  easily  subdued.  During  a  great  part  of  the  reign  of 
Nicholas  a  persistent  effort  on  the  part  of  Russia  to  conquer 
this  brave  people  was  made.  Schamyl,  the  hero  of  the  Cau- 
casus, defended  his  native  land  with  a  courage  and  skill  which 
won  the  admiration  of  the  world,  and  for  many  years  defied 
all  the  power  of  Russia.  At  length  the  policy  was  adopted  of 
surrounding  the  district  which  he  occupied  with  strong  out- 
posts, and  gradually  drawing  the  cordon  tighter.  This  new 
system  of  tactics,  beginning  in  1844,  was  continued  for  fifteen 
years,  during  which  Schamyl  brilliantly  kept  up  the  defiance 
of  Russia.  Eventually  he  was  forced  to  yield,  and  the  liberty 
of  his  country  came  to  an  end,  thousands  of  the  Mohammedan 
Circassians  emigrating  to  Turkey,  rather  than  submit  to  their 
hated  invaders. 

To  the  greatest  struggle  of  the  reign  of  Nicholas  I.,  the 
Crimean  war  against  the  allied  powers  of  Turkey,  England, 
and  France,  we  have  devoted  a  separate  chapter,  and  need 
merely  mention  it  here  as  the  last  military  event  of  his  warlike 
career.  He  died  on  February  18,  1855,  feeling  the  bitterness 
of  defeat,  and  leaving  the  closing  of  the  unsuccessful  war  to 
his  son  Alexander,  on  whom  he  is  said  to  have  laid  two  injunc- 
tions— to  liberate  the  serfs,  and  never  to  grant  a  constitution 
to  Poland. 

Alexander  II,  the  new  Czar,  was  a  very  different  charac- 
ter from  his  father.  In  him  the  stern,  despotic  temper  of 
Nicholas  was  replaced  by  a  milder  disposition  and  more  liberal 


60  RECENT  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA 

sentiment,  the  most  striking  manifestation  of  which  was  shown 
in  his  liberation  of  the  serfs.  This,  the  great  achievement  of 
his  reign,  whether  done  in  response  to  the  injunction  of  his 
dying  father  or  not,  was  in  great  measure  his  own  work.  By  his 
signature  to  the  act  of  emancipation  in  1861,  the  vast  number 
of  22,000,000  serfs,  who  had  been  held  in  bondage  for  centu- 
ries, were  set  free,  and  one  of  the  greatest  abuses  of  Russian 
policy  was  brought  to  an  end. 

The  rural  population  of  Russia,  free  for  many  centuries, 
had  been  chained  as  serfs  to  the  soil  about  the  end  of  the  i6th 
century,  this  act  of  oppression  being  legalized  by  the  Emperor 
Alexis  in  1649.  The  injustice  of  this  was  felt  for  two  centu- 
ries, but  it  was  not  till  the  awakening  of  the  reform  spirit  in 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  that  any  monarch  was  found 
with  the  courage  to  bring  it  to  an  end.  It  remained  for 
Alexander  II  and  the  growing  enlightenment  of  the  age  to 
accomplish  this  great  work.  The  landlords  were  to  be  paid 
an  indemnity,  and  to  release  their  serfs  from  their  seigniorial 
obligations,  and  the  land  of  the  village  commune  became  the 
actual  property  of  the  serfs.  The  indemnity  was  paid  by  the 
help  of  sums  advanced  by  the  government,  and  an  interest  of 
six  per  cent,  was  added ;  in  forty-six  years'  time  the  govern- 
ment was  to  be  entirely  reimbursed. 

This  great  economic  revolution  was  consummated  with 
comparatively  few  outbreaks  on  the  part  of  the  peasants.  In 
some  districts  of  Russia,  as,  for  instance,  the  Government  of 
Kazan,  there  were  riots  among  the  peasants,  who  could  not 
understand  how  it  was  that  they  had  to  pay  for  land  which 
they  had  always  regarded  as  their  own.  These  riots  were  soon 
quelled,  although  they  were  frequently  taken  advantage  of 
by  Anarchists.  The  Schlakhta,  or  petite  noblesse  of  Russia, 
seem  to  have  suffered  the  most,  as  they  were  in  the  habit  of 
employing  their  peasants  as  domestics,  and  were  thus  deprived 
of  their  services. 


RECENT  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA  6r 

Alexander  took  other  important  steps  of  reform,  one  of 
the  most  notable  of  these  being  the  creation  of  the  zemstovs,  or 
local  assemblies,  for  the  exercise  of  local  self-government. 
These  contain  representatives  from  the  noble  and  the  peasant 
classes,  the  nobles  usually  having  the  preponderance,  and 
have  to  do  with  questions  concerning  education,  highways, 
sanitation,  fire  protection,  and  other  minor  concerns,  all  mat- 
ters of  national  politics  being  strictly  forbidden. 

Other  reforms  of  the  early  years  of  Alexander's  reign 
were  the  abolition  of  many  of  the  restrictions  of  the  cen- 
sorship over  publications,  and  the  establishment  of  a  system 
of  public  tribunals  to  replace  the  secret  ones  that  had  long 
prevailed,  and  were  deeply  infiltrated  by  injustice  and  venality. 
Higher  salaries  were  now  paid,  the  profession  of  the  Bar  came 
into  being,  and  criminal  cases  were  tried  by  jury.  But  politi- 
cal trials  continued  secret,  and  the  right  to  banish  those  sus- 
pected of  designs  against  the  State  was  retained. 

The  reign  of  Alexander,  like  that  of  his  father  Nicholas, 
was  disturbed  by  a  great  insurrection  of  the  Poles,  whose 
aspirations  for  liberty  had  not  been  extinguished  by  the  severe 
measures  of  their  stern  masters.  Though  her  political  life 
seemed  extinct,  Poland  had  clung  to  her  language  and  religion, 
and  the  spirit  of  liberty  still  smouldered  in  the  souls  of  her 
people. 

In  1863  the 'bitter  hostility  of  the  people  to  their  tyran- 
nical masters  led  to  a  final  effort  to  win  back  their  lost  liberty. 
A  feeling  of  restless  dissatisfaction  had  existed  for  a  number 
of  years,  but  the  outbreak  seems  to  have  been  immediately 
due  to  the  seizure  of  a  number  of  suspected  revolutionists, 
who  were  forced  to  serve  in  the  Russian  army.  The  poorly 
armed  and  unorganized  peasants  had  from  the  start  no  hope 
of  success  against  the  87,000  trained  troops  that  were  sent 
into  their  territory.  Many  of  them  were  armed  only  with 
pikes,  scythes,  and  even  sticks  and  had  to  contend  against 


62  RECENT  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA 

men  armed  with  the  most  improved  weapons.  In  a  year's 
time  the  outbreak  had  been  completely  suppressed,  and  its 
leaders  executed,  while  every  vestige  of  a  separate  nationality 
in  Poland  was  brought  to  an  end. 

Other  military  affairs  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  II  were 
the  capture  of  Shamyl  and  the  final  subjection  of  the  Circas- 
sians, the  conquest  of  Turkestan, — as  described  in  a  later 
chapter, — and  the  war  against  Turkey  of  1877-78,  also  else- 
where described.  In  civil  affairs  the  liberal  and  humane  policy 
of  Alexander  was  far  from  keeping  pace  with  the  demands  of 
the  more  revolutionary  of  his  subjects,  and  the  secret  associa- 
tion of  the  Nihilists  came  into  existence,  the  struggle  of 
which  with  the  despotism  of  the  government  was  the  most 
remarkable  feature  t>f  the  time.  To  murder  the  representa- 
tives of  the  autocracy  was  the  inherent  method  of  Nihilism, 
and  in  consequence  the  latter  part  of  Alexander's  reign  was  dis- 
turbed by  many  attempts  against  his  life  by  these  revolution- 
ists, to  whom  execution,  or  torture  even,  had  no  terrors. 

On  April  16,  1866,  Karakazov  shot  at  the  Czar  in  St. 
Petersburg,  and  the  attempt  might  have  succeeded  had  not  a 
peasant  named  Komisarov-Kostromski  pushed  away  the  assas- 
sin's arm.  In  the  following  year  a  Pole,  named  Berezowski, 
attempted  his  life  at  Paris  while  he  was  on  a  visit  to  Napoleon 
III.  In  1878  Metzentsev,  the  head  of  the  gendarmerie  at 
St.  Petersburg,  was  killed ;  and  in  the  following  year  three 
attempts  were  made  upon  the  life  of  the  Emperor,  which  were 
nearly  successful.  Soloviov  aimed  a  pistol  at  the  Czar,  for 
which  he  was  executed,  and  attempts  were  made  to  blow  up 
part  of  the  Winter  Palace,  and  also  to  wreck  the  train  by 
which  the  Emperor  was  traveling  in  the  south  of  Russia.  On 
the  1 2th  of  March,  1881,  Alexander  was  killed  by  a  hand- 
grenade  on  the  bank  of  the  Catharine  Canal  at  St.  Petersburg. 
Before  this  time  a  mine  had  been  discovered  under  the  Malaya 
Sadovaya,  by  which  street  the  Emperor  was  to  pass.  It  had 


RECENT  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA  63 

been  dug  with  great  labor,  as  all  the  earth  had  to  be  secretly 
moved  away  in  bags.  A  shop  had  been  hired,  from  which  the 
mining  was  begun,  and  at  this  shop  one  of  the  female  conspir- 
ators ostensibly  sold  butter  and  eggs.  On  the  day  of  his 
murder  the  Emperor  was  proceeding  from  the  Mikhaliovski 
I  riding-school  when  a  shot  struck  the  carriage.  Getting  out  to 
I  inquire  what  was  the  matter,  the  Emperor  was  hit  by  a  hand- 
grenade  and  desperately  wounded  ;  he  had  only  strength  to 
cr^y  out :  Vozmi  v*  dvoriets,  tarn  umeret,  "  take  me  to  the  palace 
to  die  there."  Zhelnikov,  the  conspirator  who  had  thrown  the 
bomb,  was  himself  killed  by  the  explosion.  Another  confed- 
erate blew  out  his  brains  as  soon  as  he  was  arrested.  The 
conspirators  were  found  to  be  six  in  number,  and  were  con- 
demned to  death  ;  one,  a  Jewess,  Jessa  Helfmann,  was  sent 
into  banishment.  The  others  :  Zhelabovski  Sophia  Perovskaya, 
who,  by  letting  fall  a  handkerchief,  had  given  the  signal  to  the 
assassins,  and  Kibalchich,  Risakov  and  Mikhailov  were 
sentenced  to  be  hanged.  On  the  i5th  of  April,  1881,  they 
suffered  death  on  the  Semenovski  Place  near  St.  Petersburg. 
Sophia  Perovskaya  was  a  woman  of  undaunted  courage,  and 
met  her  fate  with  a  spirit  worthy  of  a  better  cause. 

Thus  perished  Alexander  II,  a  man  of  amiable  character 
if  not  of  great  strength  of  mind,  in  whose  reign  Russia  cer- 
tainly made  considerable  constitutional  progress.  To  him  she 
owes  the  establishment  of  the  zemstvo,  and  the  legal  reform, 
but  before  all  other  things,  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs.  It 
is  well  known  also  that,  at  the  date  of  his  death,  he  was  about 
to  summon  a  national  sobor  or  parliament,  which  had  existed 
in  the  old  times,  but  had  been  in  abeyance  since  the  days  of 
the  Emperor  Feodor,  at  the  close  of  -the  seventeenth  century. 
This  would  have  been  a  direct  step  towards  constitutional 
government.  Thus  the  assassins  hurt  instead  of  helping  their 
own  cause ;  a  usual  result,  indeed,  of  this  violent  method  of 
winning  reform  or  gaining  the  redress  of  grievances. 


64  RECENT  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA 

Alexander  III,  who  succeeded  his  father  in  1881,  and  was 
crowned  May  27,  1883,  had,  when  Crown  Prince,  strongly 
opposed  the  ultra-conservative  policy  of  his  father's  later 
years,  so  much  so  as  to  come  into  open  rupture  with  him  in 
1879.  But  the  fatal  act  of  the  Nihilists  seems  to  have  worked 
a  radical  change  in  his  opinions,  and  he  fell  under  the  influence 
of  the  reactionists,  vigorously  seeking  to  suppress  Nihilism, 
and  maintaining  throughout  his  reign  the  despotic  principles 
which  had  so  long  prevailed.  Education  was  seriously  inter- 
fered with,  even  primary  instruction  being  restricted,  and  the 
schools  placed  under  the  control  of  the  clergy,  than  whom  no 
more  unfit  body  of  teachers  could  have  been  selected.  The 
censorship  of  the  press  and  of  all  literature  was  made  more 
stringent  than  it  had  been  in  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great;  the 
police  system  became  a  system  of  maddening  espionage,  in 
which  the  most  secret  affairs  of  the  people  were  at  the  mercy 
of  innumerable  spies,  and  in  every  direction  liberalism  in 
Russia  found  itself  at  the  mercy  of  the  autocratic  government. 

The  reign  of  the  third  Alexander  was  uneventful  from  a 
political  point  of  view.  The  military  power  of  Russia  was 
developed,  the  policy  of  expansion  in  Asia  diligently  pursued, 
and  great  progress  made  in  the  extension  of  railways  through 
the  Asiatic  dominions  of  the  empire.  But  the  Czar  was 
strongly  devoted  to  peace,  and  used  all  his  power  to  keep 
Russia  out  of  international  complications.  Attempts  to  take 
his  life  were  made  by  the  Nihilists  in  1887,  and  he  narrowly 
escaped  death  by  an  accident  on  the  Transcaspian  Railway  in 
1888.  He  died  of  organic  disease  at  Livadia,  in  the  Crimea, 
November  i,  1894,  his  son,  the  Crown  Prince  Nicholas,  suc- 
ceeding him  as  Nicholas  II. 

Nicholas,  while  heir  apparent,  had  made  a  long  tour  in 
Eastern  Asia  in  1890.  During  this  journey  the  great  Trans- 
siberian  Railway  was  begun,  and  the  young  prince  had  the 
honor  of  cutting  the  first  turf  in  the  building  of  its  eastern 


RECENT  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA  65 

section,  that  to  extend  northward  from  Vladivostok  to  the 
Amur  River,  and  there  to  meet  the  main  line  on  its  approach 
from  the  west.  It  need  but  be  said  here  that  the  branch  line 
thus  inaugurated  has  been  rendered  practically  useless  by  the 
more  direct  route  taken  across  Manchuria  by  the  completed 
road. 

The  new  Czar  was  not  long  on  the  throne  before  he  gave 
a  practical  demonstration  that  he  shared  the  dislike  of  war 
entertained  by  his  father.  On  August  24,  1898,  the  Foreign 
Minister  of  Russia  handed  to  the  representatives  of  foreign 
governments  at  the  Russian  court  a  proposition  emanating 
from  the  Emperor  that  was  startling  in  its  significance.  It 
was  a  proposal  for  the  disarming  of  the  nations  and  the  main- 
tenance of  general  peace  in  the  world,  and  asking  for  a  con- 
ference to  consider  in  what  way  this  could  be  brought  about. 
This  important  conference  was  held  in  the  spring  of  1899,  and 
resulted  in  the  formation  of  The  Hague  Arbitration  Tribunal, 
an  important  international  court,  which  has  already  done  some 
noble  work  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  Czar,  and  which 
in  time  may  go  far  in  bringing  about  the  abolition  of  war. 

The  treatment  of  Finland,  however,  by  the  government 
of  Nicholas  II  is  not  highly  in  accordance  with  the  noble  sen- 
timents expressed  in  his  proposition  to  the  great  Powers. 
That  country  was  annexed  to  Russia  with  the  express  under- 
standing that  its  separate  autonomy  should  be  preserved,  the 
Czar  of  Russia  being  Grand  Duke  of  Finland,  which,  in  its 
internal  administration,  had  the  powers  of  an  independent 
state.  This  independence  has  been  rudely  dealt  with  since 
Nicholas  came  to  the  throne,  and  Finland  to-day  has  been  re- 
duced almost  to  the  condition  of  Poland,  as  a  province  of  the 
empire  deprived  very  largely  of  its  constitutional  rights  and 
privileges. 

The  most  important  events  of  the  reign  of  Nicholas  II 
had  to  do  with  the  continent  of  Asia,  and  consist  in  the 

5 


66  RECENT  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA 

expansion  of  the  Russian  dominion  in  that  continent,  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Transsiberian  Railway,  and  its  extension  to  Port 
Arthur,  obtained  by  Russia  after  the  victory  of  Japan  over 
China.  More  recent  have  been  the  part  taken  by  Russia  in  the 
Boxer  outbreak  in  China,  the  occupation  of  Manchuria,  the 
failure  to  comply  with  treaty  obligations  for  its  evacuation,  and 
the  war  with  Japan  brought  about  by  this  failure.  These 
events  are  merely  glanced  at  here,  as  events  of  the  reign  of 
Nicholas  II,  and  will  be  treated  at  length  in  later  chapters. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Russia  in  Central  Asia 

A  Land  of  Deserts  and  Oases — The  Countries  and  Rivers  of  Turkestan — Russia  on  the 
Caspian — The  Invasion  of  Kokan — Capture  of  an  Impregnable  Fort — Bokhara 
Conquers  Kokan — A  Holy  War  Proclaimed — The  Fanaticism  of  the  Turkomans — 
•  'A  Land  of  Ignorance  and  Saints — The  Old  City  of  Samarkand  Taken — The  Conquest 
of  Bokhara  and  Khiva — The  Zekke  Turkomans  and  their  Country — Skobeleff 
Takes  their  Stronghold — A  Terrible  Massacre — Other  Conquests  in  Central  Asia — 
The  Wily  Russian  Methods  in  Asia — The  Russian  Compared  with  the  Briton — Gold, 
Diplomacy  and  the  Sword  the  Russian  Weapons. 

CENTRAL  ASIA,  or  Turkestan,  is  in  great  part  a  desert, 
its  nomad  inhabitants  being  fiercer  and  more  warlike 
than  the  Kirghis.  This  desert  region,  however,  con- 
tains three  great  oases,  with  several  smaller  ones,  in  which  the 
soil  is  of  the  highest  fertility.  Abundant  harvests  of  grain  and 
the  most  delicious  fruits  are  produced,  while  several  manufac- 
turing interests  give  employment  to  the  town  populations. 
Each  oasis  had  formerly  its  distinct  government,  forming  the 
Khanats  of  Khiva,  Bokhara,  and  Kokan,  which  were  ruled 
with  the  most  absolute  tyranny.  Their  principal  cities,  Khiva, 
Bokhara,  Samarkand,  large  as  they  appear  in  the  mirage 
of  Oriental  exaggeration,  were  described  by  Vambery  as 
chiefly  mud-built  towns,  far  below  the  Persian  cities  in  charac- 
ter, which,  in  turn,  are  immeasurably  below  the  grade  of  a 
European  city.  '  The  oases  are  watered  by  the  two  great  rivers 
of  Central  Asia,  the  Amu  and  Syr-Daria,  which  traverse  their 
whole  area,  the  waters  of  the  former  being  employed  to  so 
great  an  extent  in  agricultural  irrigation  as  to  render  it  unnavi- 
gable  in  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 

Khiva,  the  most  westerly  of  these  Khanats,  has  the  Cas- 
pian Sea   for   its  western,  the  sea   of  Aral   for  its   northern 

67 


6s  RUSSIA  IN  CENTRAL  ASIA 

boundary.  The  Amu-Daria  traverses  it,  and  also  Bokhara, 
which  lies  to  the  east.  Kokan  lies  to  the  northeast  of  the  lat- 
ter country.  It  is  an  extensive  and  fertile  region,  watered  by 
the  Syr-Daria  and  by  several  other  important  streams,  and 
has,  like  the  other  sections,  a  nomad  and  a  settled  population. 
The  Turkoman  tribes  of  the  desert  were  long  in  the  habit  of 
diversifying  their  pastoral  labors  by  piratical  excursions  on  the 
Caspian,  and  by  raids  into  Persia,  whence  they  annually  brought 
large  numbers  of  captives,  who  were  sold  into  slavery  to  the 
neighboring  oases. 

Turkestan  may  be  viewed  as  the  headquarters  of  Islam- 
ism,  its  inhabitants  for  centuries  displaying  a  fanaticism  and  a 
fierce  intolerance  of  other  creeds  which  long  rendered  the  life 
of  a  European  not  worth  an  hour's  purchase  throughout  the 
whole  region.  This  was  the  principal  cause  of  the  mystery  so 
long  surrounding  it.  Vambery,  in  his  travels  in  this  region, 
was  in  constant  danger  of  his  life,  though  he  had  spent  years 
in  perfecting  himself  in  the  language  and  in  the  habits  of  a 
dervish,  and  though  he  traveled  in  all  the  rags  and  discomforts 
of  the  most  bigoted  fanatic. 

The  advances  of  Russia  in  this  direction  date  as  far  back 
as  1602.  In  this  year,  'the  Cossacks  took  the  city  of  Khiva, 
but  they  were  attacked  and  defeated  in  their  return  across  the 
desert.  Again  in  1703  during  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great, 
the  Khan  of  Khiva  placed  his  dominions  under  Russian  rule. 
The  gradual  conquest  of  the  nomads  of  the  district  of  Oren- 
burg opened  a  path  for  Russia  to  the  sea  of  Aral,  on  which 
she  firmly  established  herself.  Khiva  continued  friendly  until 
the  nineteenth  century,  when  a  change  took  place  in  the  ruling 
family,  after  which  period  the  Khivans  were  bitterly  hostile. 

In  1835  a  post  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Caspian  was 
seized  and  a  fort  built,  which,  in  connection  with  several  armed 
steamers,  was  of  the  utmost  importance  in  repressing  the  Turko- 
man pirates,  who  used  this  inland  sea  as  an  avenue  of  incursion 


RUSSIA  IN  CENTRAL  ASIA  69 

into  Persia.  In  1839  war  broke  out  with  Khiva,  and  a  Rus- 
sian expedition  was  sent  into  the  latter  country.  It  proved 
unsuccessful,  except  in  frightening  the  Khan  into  the  release 
of  some  four  hundred  Russian  prisoners  which  he  held. 

But  the  most  available  avenue  of  action  for  Russia  was  by 
the  rivers  traversing  these  regions,  the  desert  proving  a  dan- 
gerous feature  in  land  expeditions.  As  both  of  these  run  into 
the  Aral  it  was  necessary  to  make  this  her  principal  centre  of 
operation.  The  Amu-Daria,  however,  despite  its  more  favor- 
able position,  as  running  through  the  centre  of  Khiva  and 
Bokhara,  is  not  safely  navigable,  being  full  of  shifting  sand- 
banks. Hence  the  Syr-Daria  became  the  most  desirable  chan- 
nel of  operation,  it  being  navigable  fora  long  distance  from  its 
mouth.  A  great  part  of  the  lower  course  of  this  river  is 
through  a  vast  desert  region,  only  relieved  by  the  narrow  belt 
of  fertile  soil  on  each  side  of  the  stream.  It  thus  affords  the 
only  safe  avenue  of  approach  to  Kokan,  and  thence  to  the 
other  Khanats,  all  other  routes  being  over  dangerous  deserts. 

The  Kokanians,  as  if  aware  of  this  fact,  began,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  to  extend  their  dominion 
westwardly  ;  building  several  forts  along  the  river,  of  which 
the  principal,  Ak-Mechet,  was  erected  about  1817.  It  was 
used  as  a  means  of  extorting  tribute  from  the  Kirghiz  tribes, 
who  resorted  to  the  river  to  pass  the  winter,  and  who  suffered 
severely  from  the  rapacity  of  their  oppressors. 

The  modern  advance  of  Russia  into  Central  Asia  must  be 
dated  from  1835,  in  which  year  a  fort  was  erected  on  the  east- 
ern shore  of  the  Caspian,  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  pira-« 
cies.  Her  hostile  appearance  on  the  Sea  of  Aral  dates  from 
1847.  Michell  says  that  "In  order  to  make  the  influence  of 
Russia  felt  by  the  Khanats  of  Central  Asia,  and  for  the  pn> 
tection  of  the  Kirghizes  subject  to  Russia,  who  roamed  on  the 
Syr-Daria,  it  was  necessary  that  she  should  predominate  with 
out  a  rival  on  the  Sea  of  Aral." 


70  RUSSIA  IN  CENTRAL  ASIA 

In  consequence,  a  fortification  was  built  in  the  year  1845% 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  which  received  the  name  of  Fort 
Aralsk.  This  proceeding  excited  the  hostility  of  the  Khivans, 
who  had  also  erected  forts  on  the  south  side  of  the  stream. 
In  August  a  body  of  2,000  Khivans  fell  on  the  Russian  Kirg- 
hizes, taking  great  numbers  of  prisoners.  The  first  encounter/ 
with  the  Russians  was  in  consequence  of  this  event,  thej 
marauders  being  defeated  and  the  prisoners  released.  During 
the  succeeding  year  there  were  several  such  incursions,  in 
which  the  nomads  suffered  severely.  Being  compelled  to  fly 
from  each  encounter  with  the  Russians,  the  Khivans,  at  length 
realized  their  own  weakness,  and  confined  themselves  to 
demanding  the  demolition  of  the  Russian  forts. 

In  the  commencement  of  this  occupation,  Russia  had 
launched  two  vessels  upon  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  in  the  year 
1853  two  steamers  were  brought  in  pieces  from  Sweden,  and 
launched  upon  the  Syr-Daria.  One  of  these  steamers  was  armed 
with  three  howitzers  ;  the  other  being  a  steam  barge,  was  pro- 
vided with  means  for  mounting  guns.  Meanwhile  the  Koka- 
nians  had  developed  active  hostility,  The  two  powers  first 
came  into  collision  in  1851,  when  the  Tartars,  having  driven 
off  75,000  head  of  Kirghiz  cattle,  were  attacked  by  the  Rus- 
sians and  one  of  their  forts  taken.  This,  however,  did  not  put 
a  stop  to  their  depredations. 

In  the  year  1852  an  armed  expedition  was  sent  against 
the  fort  Ak-Mechet.  The  Kokanians,  to  check  it,  flooded  the 
low  lands  surrounding,  and  though  the  Cossack  troops,  after 
overcoming  hosts  of  difficulties,  stormed  and  took  the  outer 
works,  they  were  repelled  by  the  lofty  earth  walls  within,  on 
which  their  guns  made  no  impression,  and  finally  forced  to 
retreat.  In  the  following  year  it  was  determined  to  take  Ak- 
Mechet  at  any  cost.  A  force  of  over  2,000  men,  strongly 
armed,  left  the  frontier,  and  succeded  in  overcoming  all  obsta- 
cles and  capturing  the  fort. 


RUSSIA  IN  CENTRAL  ASIA  71 

In  1 86 1  possession  was  taken  of  a  small  fortress  called 
Djulek,  which  was  strengthened  and  garrisoned.  This  point 
lay  within  striking  distance  of  the  Khanat,  being  on  the  bor- 
ders of  northern  Kokan,  a  district  of  fine  climate  and  fertile 
soil  ;  beyond  which  lay  the  town  of  Vernoje.  The  region 
thus  occupied  by  Russia  was  chiefly  a  desert,  its  only  inhabita- 
ble portion  being  the  narrow  belt  on  each  side  of  the  river. 

The  ostensible  objects  of  the  Russians  in  these  various 
movements  were  the  completion  of  their  lines,  and  the  removal 
of  their  strongholds  from  the  desert  to  the  inhabited  border 
of  Turkestan.  Taking  advantage  of  the  internal  dissensions  of 
the  Khanats  they  had  resolutely  forced  their  way  down  the  Syr- 
Daria,  and  established  military  posts  within  thirty-two  miles  of 
the  town  of  Tashkend,  the  military  key  to  Central  Asia.  This 
movement,  in  connection  with  the  forts  erected  in  the  steppes, 
surrounded  the  Kirghiz  hordes  with  military  stations,  and  in 
1864  it  was  officially  announced  by  Russia  that,  the  above 
objects  being  attained,  her  aggressive  policy  was  ended. 

Meanwhile,  in  1862,  Kokan  had  been  invaded  by  the  Emir 
of  Bokhara  and  completely  conquered.  In  consequence  of  the 
disorganized  condition  of  affairs,  resulting  from  this  conquest 
the  Russian  camp  was  visited  in  the  latter  part  of  1864  by  a 
deputation  from  Tashkend,  bearing  a  petition  for  protection 
from  the  merchants  of  that  town.  In  spite  of  the  late  announce- 
ment of  a  policy  of  non-aggression,  this  opportunity  was  imme- 
diately embraced  ;  a  Cossack  force  marched  into  the  interior 
of  Kokan  and  occupied  the  capital. 

The  renewal  of  military  operations  thus  begun,  did  not 
stop  here,  but  was  vigorously  continued,  and  early  in  1866  a 
large  portion  of  Kokan  was  seized  by  the  Russian  forces. 
The  Emir  of  Bokhara,  holding  as  he  had  done,  military  posses- 
sion of  Kokan,  became  alarmed  and  infuriated  at  these  threat- 
ening advances,  and  at  once  proclaimed  a  holy  war  against 
the  aggressors.  Colonel  Struve,  the  eminent  astronomer, 


72  RUSSIA  IN  CENTLAL  ASIA 

who  had  been  sent  on  an  embassy  from  the  Russian 
camp,  was  seized  and  imprisoned  ;  religious  emissaries  were 
sent  throughout  the  country,  preaching  "  Death  to  the  infi- 
del ! "  and  every  effort  was  made  to  raise  troops  to  repel  the 
invasion. 

Of  all  the  portions  of  the  earth  which  make  even  the  most 
feeble  claim  to  civilization,  Turkestan  then  took  the  lead  in 
ignorance  and  fanaticism.  Its  Islamism  was  of  the  most  rabid 
cast,  and  was  accompanied  by  an  intolerance  not  known  else- 
where on  earth.  For  a  known  European  to  cross  their  borders 
was  almost  certain  death.  Vambery  only  succeeded  in  trav- 
ersing their  country  by  his  deep  disguise  and  long  experience 
in  Dervish  customs,  and  members  even  of  the  opposing  sect 
of  Mohammedans  to  which  the  Persians  belong  were  tolerated 
only  as  slaves.  This  exclusiveness  which  rendered  the  Khanats 
almost  terra  incognita,  kept  their  inhabitants  ignorant  of  the 
world  of  outside  barbarians.  The  invasion  of  Europe  by  the 
Turks,  and  the  cpnsequent  dismay  into  which  all  Christendom 
was  thrown,  remained  to  them  as  a  thing  of  yesterday,  and  the 
most  extravagant  ideas  were  held  in  relation  to  the  power  and 
influence  of  the  Sublime  Porte.  To  their  ignorant  fancy 
Europe  still  bent  in  cringing  submission  to  the  Turk,  and  they 
imagined  that  a  bare  promise  of  assistance  from  the  Sultan 
would  drive  the  invader  in  terror  from  the  holy  soil  of  Turkes- 
tan. They  depended  also  on  two  other  powerful  aids  against 
aggression.  One  of  these,  and  the  most  effective  in  our  eyes, 
was  the  extensive  deserts  surrounding  their  territory.  The 
other,  to  them  far  more  efficacious,  was  the  large  number 
of  saints  buried  in  their  soil.  They  seemed  to  imagine  that 
the  bones  of  the  saintly  dead  would  rise  and  form  a  spectral 
cordon  utterly  impassable  to  infidel  foot. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  with  such  powerful  auxiliaries  the 
Emir  rapidly  succeeded  in  raising  a  strong  force,  and  was 
successful  in  defeating  the  Russians,  who  had  marched  into 


TYPES  OF  RUSSIAN  AND  JAPANESE  SOLDIERS 

A.t  th«  left  are  Japanese  artillery,  cavalry  and  infantry.     At  the  right  are  the  Russian  cossack,  trooper  and 
artillery.     In  the  center  is  a  map  of  the  scene  of  hostilities. 


MAP  OF  THE  \VAR  IN  THE  FAR  EAST 


The  difference  in  time  between  Washington  and  the  principal  foreign  cities,  taking  February  9th,  noon, 
as  a  starting  point,  is  as  follows:  at  London  it  was  5.00  P.M.,  St.  Petersburg  7.00  P.M.,  Peldn  about 
12.40  A.M.  February  ioth,  Port  Arthur  i.oo  A.M.  February  joth,  Tokio  about  12.30  A.M.  February  loth. 


RUSSIA  IN  CENTRAL  ASIA  73 

Bokhara  with  the  purpose  of  liberating  Colonel  Struve.  The 
repulsed  force  retreated  in  order,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of 
their  enemy,  and  before  the  latter  had  much  leisure  for  exulta- 
tation  over  their  success,  a  second  advance  was  made,  resulting 
in  the  capture  of  the  large  town  of  Khojend,  and  of  other 
important  posts,  which  completed  the  conquest  of  Kokan. 
The  Emir,  astonished  that  the  Sublime  Porte  had  not  annihi- 
lated the  invader,  and  that  the  saints  had  serenely  slept  on 
wjth  the  foot  of  the  infidel  upon  their  graves,  now  sired  for 
peace,  which  was  readily  granted. 

War  broke  out  again  in  1868*  this  time  leading  to  the 
defeat  of  the  Khivans  and  the  occupation  of  Samarcand,  one 
of  the  most  ancient  and  famous  cities  of  Central  Asia,  the 
date  of  whose  origin  reaches  far  back  towards  the  birth  of  his- 
tory. A  vigorous  effort  was  made  by  the  enraged  Mussel- 
mans  to  retake  this  holy  city,  and  the  Russians  were  defeated 
and  driven  to  the  citadel,  where,  for  eight  days,  they  were 
closely  besieged.  They  were  soon  relieved,  however,  the 
Emir  was  driven  from  the  city,  and  firm  possession  was  main- 
tained. Dispirited  by  these  reverses,  in  July,  1868,  the  Emir 
sued  for  peace,  offering  terms  highly  advantageous  to  the  inva- 
ders. Samarcand  was  ceded  to  Russia,  along  with  three  other 
stations,  which  were  shrewdly  selected  to  give  full  military 
control  of  the  country.  One  of  these  was  a  point  on  the  road 
from  Samarcand  to  Afghanistan,  The  second  was  an  import- 
ant station  lying  between  Samarcand  and  Bokhara.  The  third 
lay  near  the  Oxus,  the  three  forming  a  triangle  which,  strongly 
occupied,  would  effectually  lock  Bokhara  in  the  military 
embrace  of  Russia. 

To  proceed  with  our  story  of  military  progress,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  conquest  the  historian  cites,  of  Samarcand  and 
Bokhara  in  1868,  was  followed  by  the  fall  of  Khiva  in  1873. 
Russia  thus  became  lord  and  master  of  the  great  oases  and 
the  chief  regions  of  Central  Asia  lay  at  her  feet.  The 


74  RUSSIA  IN  CENTRAL  ASIA 

complete  control  of  Kokan  was  accomplished  in  1875-76,  at  the 
cost  of  a  fierce  war,  and  the  Khanat  was  annexed  to  Russia, 
this  completing  the  acquisition  of  the  fertile  provinces  of  Tur- 
kestan. But  the  fierce  nomads  of  the  desert  region  continued 
unsubdued,  and  the  southern  oasis  of  Merv  and  the  country 
of  the  warlike  Tekke  Turkomans  remained  to  conquer.  This 
was  accomplished  in  188081. 

The  Tekkes,  dwelling  in  the  Akhal  oasis,  were  separated 
from  the  Caspian  by  150  miles  of  desert,  and  from  the  north- 
ern oasis  by  a  broad  desert  belt.  It  was  to  this  land  of  Akhal, 
according  to  a  Musselman  tradition,  that  Adam  made  his  way 
when  he  was  driven  out  of  Eden.  Certainly,  too  much  cannot 
be  said  of  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  this  three-hundred-mile 
strip  of  well-watered  garden  ground,  as  contrasted  with  the 
endless  waste  that  closes  in  the  horizon  to  the  north-eastward. 
CoVn  and  maize,  cotton  and  wool,  formed  part  of  the  wealth 
of  its  people.  They  had  the  finest  horses  of  all  Turkestan, 
and  great  herds  and  flocks  of  cattle,  sheep  and  camels.  The 
streams  turned  numerous  mills,  and  were  led  by  a  network  of 
tunnels  and  conduits  through  the  fields  and  garden.  The 
people  were  united  in  a  loose  confederacy,  acknowledging  the 
lordship  of  the  Khan  of  Merv,  who  had  come  from  one  of 
their  own  villages.  They  raided  the  Russian  and  Persian  bor- 
ders successfully,  these  plundering  expeditions  filling  up  the 
part  of  the  year  when  they  were  not  busy  with  more  peaceful 
occupations.  Along  their  fertile  strip  of  land  ran  the  caravan 
track  from  Merv  by  Askabad  to  Kizil  Arvat  and  the  Caspian, 
and  when  they  were  not  at  war  the  Tekkes  had  thus  an  outlet 
for  their  surplus  productions,  among  which  were  beautiful  car- 
pets, the  handiwork  of  their  women.  In  war  they  had  proved 
themselves  formidable  to  all  their  neighbors.  United  with  the 
warriors  of  Merv,  the  men  of  Akhal  had  cut  to  pieces  a 
Khivan  army  in  1855  and  a  host  of  Persians  in  1861. 

The  first  effort  to  subdue  the   Akhal  warriors  proved  a 


RUSSIA  IN  CENTRAL  ASIA  75 

complete  failure.  As  soon  as  peace  was  concluded  with  Tur- 
key, after  the  war  of  1877-78,  General  Lomakine  was  sent  with 
a  strong  force  to  the  Caspian,  whence  he  made  his  way  by  the 
caravan  route  over  the  desert  to  the  strong  nomad  fortress  of 
Geok  Tepe  ("blue  hills"),  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  range 
mentioned.  The  attempt  to  take  the  fort  by  storm  failed  and 
the  Russians  were  forced  to  retreat  in  disorder. 

To  retrieve  this  disaster  General  Skobeleff,  the  most  dar- 
ing oC  the  Russian  generals,  who  had  gained  great  glory  in  the 
siege  of  Plevna,  was  selected,  and  set  out  in  1880.  On  the  ist 
of  January,  1881,  he  came  in  sight  of  the  fort,  with  an  army 
of  10,000  picked  troops,  and  fifty-four  cannon.  Behind  the 
clay  ramparts  lay  awaiting  him  from  20,000  to  30,000  valiant 
nomads,  filled  with  the  pride  of  their  recent  victory. 

On  this  occasion  no  attempt  was  made  to  storm  the  works, 
but  siege  operations  were  begun  and  pushed  so  rapidly  that  by 
the  23d  the  walls  were  trenched  and  mines  were  driven  under 
the  ramparts.  These  were  fired  on  the  following  day,  and 
amid  the  momentary  panic  of  the  garrison,  two  storming 
parties  rushed  through  the  breaches  into  the  fort. 

"  No  quarter!"  was  the  shout  of  the  Russian  officers  as 
the  stormers  sprang  forward.  None  was  given  or  taken.  The 
Tekkes  fought  desperately,  but  were  finally  driven  out  of  the 
fort,  and  fled  in  long  lines  over  the  plain.  After  them  dashed 
the  Cossack  cavalry,  cutting  them  down  as  they  ran,  women  as 
well  as  men,  until  more  than  8,000  of  them  lay  dead  on  the 
plain  ;  6,500  had  perished  within  the  fortress. 

Skobeleff  looked  on  the  massacre  as  a  necessary  element 
in  the  conquest  of  Geok  Tepe.  "  I  hold  it  as  a  principle,"  he 
said,  "that  in  Asia  the  duration  of  peace  is  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  slaughter  you  inflict  on  the  enemy.  The  harder  you  hit 
them  the  longer  they  will  keep  quiet  after  it."  No  women,  he 
added,  were  killed  by  the  troops  under  his  immediate  command, 
and  he  set  at  liberty  700  Persian  women  who  were  captives 


76  RUSSIA  IN  CENTRAL  ASIA 

in  Geok  Tepe.  After  ten  miles  the  pursuit  was  stopped. 
There  was  no  further  resistance.  Not  a  shot  was  fired  on 
either  side  after  that  terrible  day.  The  chiefs  came  in  and 
surrendered.  The  other  towns  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  oasis 
were  occupied  without  fighting ;  nay,  more,  within  a  month  of 
Geok  Tepe  Skobeleff  was  able  to  go  without  a  guard  into  the 
midst  of  the  very  men  who  had  fought  against  him.  We  in 
America  cannot  understand  the  calm  submission  with  which 
the  Asiatic  accepts  as  the  decree  of  fate  the  rule  of  the  con- 
queror whose  hand  has  been  heavy  upon  him  and  his. 

The  cession  of  the  oasis  of  Merv  soon  followed,  the  fall 
of  Akhal  making  its  surrender  a  necessity.  In  1884  four  of 
its  Khans  came  in  and  voluntarily  put  themselves  under  Rus- 
sian protection.  We  may  say  in  conclusion  that  since  then 
the  Russian  influence  has  steadily  grown  in  the  surrounding 
regions.  Persia  has  fallen  so  strongly  under  this  influence  that 
its  future  seems  to  lie  at  the  beck  of  the  Czar ;  part  of  northern 
Afghanistan  has  been  occupied,  and  in  1891-92  a  large  section 
of  the  mountain  district  of  the  Pamir  was  annexed  to  Russia, 
whose  borders  on  the  south  thus  fell  closely  on  British  India. 

The  crumbling  ramparts  of  Geok  Tepe  remain  a  memo- 
rial of  the  years  of  warfare  which  it  cost  the  Russians,  and  the 
iron  track  on  which  the  trains  steam  past  the  ruined  fortress 
shows  how  complete  has  been  the  victory.  Skobeleff  looked 
upon  his  triumph  as  only  the  first  step  to  further  conquests.; 
But  within  eighteen  months  of  the  storming  of  Geok  Tepe  he 
died  suddenly  at  Moscow.  Others  have  built  on  the  founda- 
tions which  he  laid ;  and,  for  good  or  ill,  the  advance  which 
began  with  the  subjugation  of  the  Tekke  Turkomans  has  now 
brought  the  Russian  outposts  in  Central  Asia  in  sight  of  the 
passes  that  lead  across  the  mountain  barriers  of  the  Indian 
frontier. 

This  conquest  was  quickly  followed  by  the  laying  of  a 
railroad  across  the  desert,  from  the  Caspian  to  the  sacred 


RUSSIA  IN  CENTRAL  ASIA  77 

Mohammedan  city  of  Samarcand,  the  former  capital  of  the 
terrible  Timur  the  Tartar,  and  the  iron  horse  now  penetrates 
freely  into  the  heart  of  that  once  unknown  land,  its  shrill 
whistle  perhaps  disturbing  Timur  in  his  tomb.  When,  and 
where,  the  advance  of  Russia  in  Asia  will  end  no  man  can  say, 
perhaps  not  until  Hindostan  is  torn  from  British  hands  and 
the  empire  of  the  north  has  reached  the  southern  sea.  While 
Russia  in  Europe  comprises  about  2,000,000  square  miles, 
Russia  in  Asia  has  attained  an  area  of  6,564,778  square  miles, 
and  the  total  area  of  this  colossal  empire  is  nearly  equal  to 
that  of  the  entire  continent  of  North  America. 

What  we  have  detailed  is  but  the  surface  indications  of 
Russian  operations  in  Asia.  Nothing  is  here  seen  of  the 
strong  web  of  diplomacy  which  the  astute  Muscovite  has  for 
years  been  industriously  weaving,  nor  of  the  change  in  the 
habits  and  modes  of  thought  of  the  Asiatics  which  the 
leaven  of  civilization  in  their  midst  is  slowly  effecting.  This 
alone  can  render  permanent  the  work  of  the  sword ;  Russia, 
with  her  schools,  of  which  the  Kirghizes  are  rapidly  taking 
advantage,  with  the  aid  of  a  newspaper  printed  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  nomads,  with  the  influence  of  settled  communi- 
ties in  their  midst,  of  stable  government,  suppression  of  rob- 
bery, encouragement  of  agriculture,  and  introduction  of 
numerous  luxuries  into  the  steppes,  and  with  the  various  other 
results  of  their  presence,  is  rapidly  producing  this  change  in 
their  ideas  and  habits.  The  Russian  movements  are  never 
barren  military  occupations.  The  conquests  of  the  Cossacks 
are  rapidly  succeeded  by  the  advance  of  the  farmer  with  his 
family  and  stock.  Every  fort  soon  becomes  the  centre  of  a 
thriving  colony,  and  all  the  advantages  of  a  settled  residence 
and  civilized  modes  of  life  are  displayed  to  the  eyes  of  the 
wondering  barbarians.  This  course  has  already  had  a  power- 
ful effect,  and  may  have  the  most  vital  results  in  time.  Russia 
is  shrewdly  rendering  herself  the  central  figure  in  Asiatic 


78  RUSSIA  IN  CENTRAL  ASIA 

politics.  Her  power  and  the  value  of  her  friendship  are  strongly 
impressed  on  the  tribes,  and  she  is  rapidly  weakening  the  influ- 
ence of  England  in  Asia. 

<_> 

The  Russian  diplomat  has  all  the  softness  and  suavity  of 
his  Asiatic  congeners  ;  he  can  glide  through  their  closest  net  of 
diplomacy  without  displaying  an  angle  in  his  body  ;  he  conforms 
to  their  customs,  and  allows  them  to  delay  and  prevaricate  to 
their  hearts'  content.  But  his  point  once  gained  he  is  unyield- 
ing. He  is  an  adept  in  the  art  of  bribery;  has  emissaries 
everywhere  ;  in  fact,  thoroughly  understands  how  to  deal  with 
Asia,  and  is  too  strongly  imbued  with  this  Asiatic  spirit  for 
European  patience.  "  You  must  beat  about  the  bush  with  a 
Russian.  You  must  flatter  him  and  humbug  him.  You  must 
talk  about  everything  but  the  thing.  If  you  want  to  buy  a 
horse  you  must  pretend  you  want  to  sell  a  cow,  and  so  work 
gradually  around  to  the  point  in  view." 

Thus  the  shrewd  Russian  has  gained  point  after  point  from 
his  Oriental  neighbors,  and  has  permanently  annexed  a  territory 
one  half  larger  than  all  Europe,  yet  has  ever  succeeded  in 
making  faithful  subjects  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  conquered 
district.  The  ground  is  prepared  in  front  before  he  moves  a  foot 
forward,  and  all  that  he  leaves  in  his  rear  falls  into  the  strong 
embrace  of  the  Russian  empire.  Gold  and  diplomacy  are  his 
weapons  equally  with  the  sword,  and  thus  Europe  is  marching 
into  Asia  with  a  solid  front,  full  of  significance  for  the  future. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

The  Russian  Conquest  of  Siberia 

Vermak  the  Cossack  and  the  Discovery  of  Siberia — Russia  on  the  Chinese  Frontier— 

The  Exploration — Russia  Seizes  Saghalien,  a  Japanese  Island — The  Vast  Wealth 

»  of  Siberia — The  Russians  invade  the  Mongolian  Steppes — Their  Cunning  Dealings 

with  the  Khirgis — How  the  Russians  Cheated  the  Desert  Chiefs — Towns  in  the 

Desert — Pushing  to  the  South — Schools  Among  the  Nornads. 

IT  is  now  nearly  three  hundred  years  since  the  foot  of  Rus- 
sia was  first  planted  on  Asiatic  soil,  during  all  which  time 
she  has  persistently  carried  forward  her  plans  of  conquest 
and  occupation,  though  it  was  only  within  the  last  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  that  this  quiet  process  developed  into  active 
and  successful  aggression.  Before  the  commencement  of  this 
movement,  however,  we  have  the  parallel  one  of  the  occupa- 
tion of  Russia  by  the  Asiatics,  the  Tartars  of  the  Golden 
Horde  establishing  themselves  as  firmly  there  as  the  Arabs 
did  in  Spain,  and  being  driven  out  only  by  as  determined  and 
long-continued  efforts.  Czar  Ivan,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  attempted  to  institute  a  grand  Tartar  king- 
dom, and  took  the  first  step  towards  its  accomplishment  in  the 
conquest  of  the  established  Tartar  governments  of  Kazan 
and  Astrakan,  near  the  western  borders  of  the  Caspian.  Yet, 
although  this  laid  Asia  open  to  Russian  invasion,  an  unaccount- 
able ignorance  of  the  vast  region  which  lay  beyond  the  Ural 
mountains  prevailed,  contests  with  the  Mongols  and  internal 
dissensions  fully  occupying  the  attention  of  the  government. 
In  the  year  1580,  a  Cossack  named  Yermak,  chief  of  a  band 
of  robbers,  being  outlawed  for  some  of  his  predatory  adven- 
tures in  Europe,  found  his  way  with  some  two  hundred  adven- 
turers across  the  Ural.  After  pillaging  the  Tartars  for  some 

79 


8o  THE  RUSSIAN  CONQUEST  OF  SIBERIA 

time,  his  handful  of  robbers  became  so  wasted  with  constant 
fighting  that  they  could  no  longer  maintain  themselves.  It 
then  occurred  to  Yermak  to  return  to  Moscow,  announce  his 
discoveries,  and  make  peace  with  the  Czar.  The  robber  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  a  hero,  and  was  appointed  to  com- 
mand an  expedition  for  the  conquest  of  Siberia. 

The  Cossacks,  conquered  by  Russia  about  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  have  served  ever  since  as  the  Russian 
military  pioneers,  and  formed  the  material  of  this  first  move- 
ment into  Asia.  The  progress  of  conquest  and  occupation  was 
remarkably  rapid.  In  1639  the  pioneers  of  the  movement 
stood  on  the  shores  of  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  having  in  about 
fifty  years  traversed  and  taken  possession  of  the  whole  vast 
width  of  Siberia,  ana  established  many  thriving  settlements, 
which  yet  remain  important  centres  of  Siberian  population. 
In  these  early  movements,  while  some  of  the  adventurers 
penetrated  the  country  beyond  Lake  Baikal  to  the  northeast, 
emerging  on  the  shores  of  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  others  moved 
eastwardly.  Each  party  found  its  enterprise  repaid  by  the 
abundance  of  fur-bearing  animals.  The  latter  line  of  advance 
culminated  in  1643  m  the  discovery  of  the  Amur  river  by  a 
party  of  Cossack  hunters,  who  embarked  upon  this  magnificent 
stream  and  descended  it  to  the  Pacific  ocean.  Their  report 
of  their  success,  and  of  the  wealth  of  the  country  they  had 
traversed,  induced  the  government  to  attempt  settlements 
in  this  region.  In  1650  an  officer  named  Khabaroff  was 
despatched  with  a  body  of  Cossacks  to  select  and  fortify  a 
position.  He  chose  a  site  at  Albazin,  103  miles  from  the 
junction  of  the  Argun  and  the  Schilka,  the  two  main  tributa- 
ries of  the  Amur.  Numerous  hunters  followed  the  Cossack 
advance  and  settled  at  Albazin,  forming  a  considerable  town. 
They  immediately  began  to  oppress  the  natives,  driving  them 
from  their  hunting  grounds,  and  otherwise  maltreating  them. 

The  settlement,  becoming  reinforced  by  numbers  of  those 


THE  RUSSIAN  CONQUEST  OF  SIBERIA  81 

desperate  characters  who  always  seek  the  license  of  frontier 
stations,  became  daring  in  its  aggressions.  The  Amur  was 
crossed  and  the  Chinese  villages  to  the  south  were  plundered, 
regardless  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  Chinese  authorities. 
As  animals  became  scarce  the  inhabitants  took  to  plundering 
the  tribes  for  many  miles  round  their  settlement.  Khabaroff 
displayed  the  boldest  daring  in  his  depredations  upon  the 
Chinese,  and  organized  boat  raids  down  the  Sungari  into 
the  heart  of  Manchuria,  levying  blackmail  from  the  populous 
districts  bordering  on  this  river. 

In  1652  he  was  attacked  by  a  large  Chinese  army  in  a 
fort  he  had  built  to  support  these  aggressions,  and  though 
making  a  desperate  resistance,  was  finally  forced  to  retreat. 
In  1658  the  Russians  received  another  check,  StepanofT, 
another  marauder,  who  made  savage  excursions  down  the 
Sungari,  being  surrounded  by  a  fleet  of  Chinese  war  boats 
and  his  whole  party  killed  or  captured. 

In  1657  a  Chinese  army  attacked  Albazin,  and  the  posses- 
sion of  this  point  was  contested  for  thirty  years,  the  Russians 
finally  retiring  in  1688.  The  next  year  a  treaty  was  made  by 
which  Russia  yielded  all  her  Manchu  settlements,  and  made 
the  junction  of  the  Argun  and  Schilka  her  Siberian  boundary. 

From  this  period  until  the  year  1854,  Russia  remained 
stationary  in  this  region,  and  nothing  was  known  of  the  coun- 
try beyond  the  boundary  line,  save  what  was  learned  from  ad- 
venturous hunters,  and  from  the  return  of  escaped  convicts. 
In  the  year  1848  an  officer  with  four  Cossacks  was  sent  down 
the  river  to  make  observations.  They  never  returned,  and 
their  fate  remains  a  mystery  to  this  day,  though  every  possible 
effort  was  made  to  learn  if  they  had  been  taken  an  held  prisoners 
by  the  Chinese. 

General  Muravief,  the  Governor  General  of  Eastern 
Siberia,  finally  determined  to  make  a  forcible  exploration  of 
the  river.  His  ostensible  object  was  the  provisioning  of  the 

6 


82  THE  RUSSIAN  CONQUEST  OF  SIBERIA 

Russian  settlements  on  the  Pacific,  which  were  threatened  by 
the  English  and  French  war  vessels  during  the  Crimean  war. 
He  accordingly  prepared  a  strong  expedition,  which,  without 
asking  the  privilege  from  the  Chinese,  sailed  in  1854  down  the 
Amur.  The  rapid  success  of  this  invasion  is  in  strange  con- 
trast with  the  futile  efforts  of  two  centuries  before.  It  was 
made,  however,  in  such  force  that  the  Chinese  authorities  were 
quite  unable  to  check  its  course,  and  in  less  than  six  weeks  the 
whole  of  the  vast  region  north  of  the  Amur  was  quietly  an- 
nexed, by  taking  possession  of  the  north  bank  of  the  river. 
In  1857  it  was  secured  so  strongly  by  military  stations  that  the 
whole  Chinese  army  would  have  proved  powerless  to  dislodge 
its  new  owners. 

The  close  of  the  Crimean  war  gave  Russia  full  liberty  to 
prosecute  her  designs  in  these  quarters,  and  shrewd  advantage 
was  taken  of  the  French  and  English  war  with  China  to  secure 
from  the  latter  a  treaty,  ceding  all  this  region  to  Russia,  together 
with  the  whole  coast  region  of  Manchuria,  a  district  invaluable 
to  the  Russians. 

Possession  was  also  obtained  of  the  northern  half  of  the 
island  of  Saghalien  and  in  June,  1861,  an  important  island  in 
the  Straits  of  Corea  was  seized.  At  a  later  date  Russia 
forcibly  occupied  the  remainder  of  Saghalien,  driving  out 
the  Japanese  garrisons  and  coolly  annexing  the  island.  These 
acquisitions  gave  the  Muscovite  government  a  very  important 
Pacific  coast  line,  extending  from  35°  N.  L.  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  and  securing  to  Russia  a  powerful  influence  in  the 
future  of  the  Pacific  and  of  the  Asiatic  coast  regions. 

It  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  Siberian  acquisitions  are 
in  any  respect  barren  and  unimportant.  A  country  of  the  vast 
dimensions  of  Siberia  would  be  valuable  in  many  particu- 
lars, even  if  it  were  as  barren  as  the  desert  steppes  to  the 
south.  Its  product  is,  in  fact,  of  the  most  diversified  and 
important  character.  A  prodigious  number  of  fur-bearing 


THE  RUSSIAN  CONQUEST  OF  SIBERIA  83 

• 

animals  gives  value  to  the  icy  regions  of  the  north,  and  to  the 
southern  mountain  regions.  Much  of  the  soil  of  Siberia  is 
highly  fertile,  and  the  agricultural  possibilities  of  the  country 
incalculable.  The  fertile  steppes  in  the  governments  of  Tomsk 
and  Tobolsk  form  the  great  granaries  of  Russia  and  northern- 
Europe.  The  great  rivers  and  numerous  lakes  of  the  country 
abound  with  valuable  fish.  Large  forests  of  useful  timber  are 
found  in  all  portions  of  the  country.  The  great  rivers  of 
Siberia  are  of  little  value  as  water-ways,  from  having  their 
outlets  in  the  frozen  ocean.  The  Amur,  however,  fortunately 
flows  east,  and  thus  forms  a  navigable  stream  of  more  than 
2,200  miles  in  length,  from  central  Siberia  to  the  Pacific.  This 
great  stream,  with  its  hundreds  of  tributaries,  its  endurable  cli- 
mate, the  agricultural  value  of  its  soil,  its  extensive  woodlands, 
the  abundant  animal  life  on  its  banks,  and  the  innumerable 
fish  in  its  waters,  forms  the  most  valuable  section  of  the  coun- 
try, and  is  probably  destined  to  a  rapid  growth  in  population. 
The  mineral  wealth  of  Siberia  is  immense,  and  of  the  most 
varied  character.  Important  iron  mines  are  worked  in  the 
Ural  region,  as  also  mines  of  platinum.  This  region  yields 
many  precious  stones,  among  them  the  diamond.  Gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  lead  are  also  abundantly  found.  Splendid 
emeralds,  amethysts,  and  topaz  are  found  in  various  portions 
of  the  country.  Malachite  is  abundant  and  beautiful,  as  also 
porphyry  and  jasper,  all  of  which  are  worked  into  magnificent 
vases,  tables,  and  other  ornamental  forms.  Such  is  an  imper- 
fect glance  at  the  useful  resources  of  this  vast  region,  whose 
population  is  rapidly  increasing  and  its  natural  wealth  being 
vigorously  developed  under  the  stimulus  of  Russian  enterprise. 
But  the  Russian  advance  has  been  not  only  westward,  but 
southward.  The  immense  Mongolian  region  traversed  by  the 
Kirghiz  nomads,  desert  as  it  is  in  great  part,  yet  gives  sub- 
sistence to  great  numbers  of  men,  and  to  vast  herds  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses,  the  property  of  these  wandering  tribes.  It 


84  THE  RUSSIAN  CONQUEST  OF  SIBERIA 

thus  had  its  value  in  the  Muscovite  plan  of  extension,  and 
Russia  was  engaged  for  years  in  quietly  taking  possession  of 
it,  till  her  control  over  the  natives  became  supreme. 

The  movement  was  made  by  the  gradual  extension  of 
military  posts  to  the  south  of  Siberia,  and  by  cajoling  the 
natives  of  the  steppes  until  her  hold  was  sufficiently  strong  to 
defy  them. 

When  work  in  the  silver  and  lead  mines  of  eastern  Siberia 
was  stopped  during  the  formation  of  the  Amur  expedition,  a 
party  was  sent  into  the  mountain  regions  of  the  steppes  to 
prospect  for  these  minerals.  The  result  was  the  finding  of  rich 
silver  and  lead  deposits  in  a  district  far  beyond  the  Russian 
border.  All  the  diplomatic  cunning  of  the  Muscovites  was 
needed  in  negotiations  with  the  Kirghiz  for  this  territory.  The 
ore  appeared  to  the  nomads  but  ordinary  rock.  They  had  no 
particular  objection,  therefore,  to  part  with  the  hill  region,  but 
strongly  objected  to  part  with  a  small  river  which  ran  past  the 
foot  of  the  hills,  and  was  of  more  real  value  to  them  than 
mountains  of  silver.  "  This  stream  was  necessary  to  Russian 
mining  operations,  and  by  cunningly  investing  the  Sultan  with 
a  gold-laced  coat  and  a  medal,  and  his  chiefs  in  rich  array,  a 
great  change  was  brought  about  in  his  views.  When  a  Cos- 
sack buckled  a  sabre  on  his  waist,  this  settled  the  point.  He 
would  have  given  half  the  rivers  in  the  steppe  sooner  than  be 
stripped  of  his  weapons  and  finery.  Thus  for  a  sum  of  about 
,£150  his  imperial  majesty  acquired  mines  and  a  freehold  prop- 
erty in  the  Kirghiz  steppes  which  will,  I  have  no  doubt,  expand 
rapidly  towards  all  points  of  the  compass.  These  mines  are  of 
immense  value."  (Atkinson.) 

The  next  advance  southward  was  in  the  building  of  a  fort 

on  the  Kopal,  a  point  considerably  to  the  south  of  the  former 

.station,  and  near  the   Chinese  frontier.     A  station  200  miles 

further  to  the  southwest  was  the  town  of  Vernoje,  founded  by 

a  colony   from  Kopal.     Numerous   other   forts  arose  on  the 


THE  RUSSIAN  CONQUEST  OF  SIBERIA  85 

desert  frontier  of  Russia,  and  the  ruins  of  old  forts  which  had 
served  a  similar  purpose  of  bringing  the  Asiatic  tribes  under 
Russian  sway  are  frequent  in  Siberia,  having  been  abandoned 
as  the  country  became  subdued.  Atkinson  says,  "  Russia  is 
thus  surrounding  the  Kirghiz  hordes  with  civilization  which 
will  ultimately  bring  about  a  moral  revolution  in  this  country. 
Agriculture  and  other  branches  of  industry  will  be  introduced 
by  the  Russian  peasant,  than  whom  no  man  can  better  adapt 
himself  to  circumstance." 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Russia's  Occupation  of  Manchuria  and 
Port  Arthur 

From  Harbin  to  Port  Arthur — Japan's  Treaty  With  Russia — The  Powers  Rob 
Japan  of  the  Spoils  of  War — Leases  by  China  to  Germany,  Russia  and  Great 
Britain — The  Region  of  the  Amur — The  Right  of  River  Navigation — The 
Manchurian  Railway — The  Treaty  of  1898 — The  Character  and  Resources 
of  Manchuria — Decline  of  the  Manchu  People — The  Port  Arthur  Naval 
Station — The  Harbor  of  Talien-wan — Dalny,  a  Town  Built  to  Order — Russia 
as  a  Builder  of  Cities. 

MENTION  is  made  in  the  preceding  chapter  of  the  branch 
line  of  railroad  laid  by  Russia  from  Harbin,  in  northern 
Manchuria,  to  Port  Arthur r  a  location  at  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  Liao-tung  peninsula.  The  acts  of 
diplomacy  and  force  by  which  Russia  obtained  this  privilege 
and  the  advantage  which  was  taken  of  the  concession  are  of 
the  greatest  importance  in  our  record,  since  they  were  the 
pioneer  steps  in  the  series  of  events  which  led  eventually 
to  the  war  with  Japan.  For  the  primary  stage  in  these 
important  occurrences  we  must  go  back  to  the  close  of  the 
Chino- Japanese  war  and  the  settlement  made  between  the 
victors  and  the  vanquished  in  that  conflict. 

The  closing  events  in  that  war  were  the  capture  of  the 
Chinese  port  and  stronghold  of  Wei-hai-wei,  on  the  northern 
coast  of  the  province  of  Shantung,  opposite  Port  Arthur,  and 
the  occupation  of  the  twin  city  of  New-chwang,  which  gave 
Japan  a  post  of  vantage  between  Mukden  in  Manchuria  and 
Peking.  When  the  spring  of  1895  was  about  to  open,  the 

86 


RUSSIA'S  OCCUPATION  OF  MANCHURIA  87 

Japanese  possessed  an  army  of  100,000  men,  ready  to  move 
upon  Peking,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  could  have  taken 
the  city  speedily  and  easily.  Two  months  previously,  the 
Chinese  had  sent  to  Tokio  a  pretended  peace  mission  with 
inadequate  powers;  but  now,  the  Peking  government,  recog- 
nizing the  impossibility  of  resistance,  appointed  Li  Hung 
Chang  plenipotentiary,  and  dispatched  him  to  Shimonoseki, 
which  he  reached  on  March  20,  1895.  Luckily  for  the  suc- 
cess of  his  mission,  he  was  shot  in  the  cheek  by  a  fanatic 
f<  iiir  days  after  his  arrival,  while  he  was  returning  from  a 
conference  with  Count  Ito,  the  representative  of  Japan. 
This  outrage  aroused  great  sympathy  for  Li  Hung  Chang, 
and,  to  prove  the  sincerity  of  his  regret,  the  Mikado  consented 
to  an  armistice,  and  sensibly  modified  the  terms  of  peace 
upon  which  he  had  originally  insisted. 

On  April  17,  1895,  the  Treaty  of  Shimonoseki  was  signed, 
and,  on  May  8,  the  ratifications  were  exchanged  at  Chefoo. 
The  provisions  of  the  treaty  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as 
follows:  The  Chinese  were  to  cede  to  Japan  the  islands  of 
Formosa  and  the  Pescadores,  and  also,  on  the  Asiatic  main- 
land, the  southern  part  of  the  province  of  Shingking,  including 
the  Liao-tung  or  Regent's  Sword  peninsula,  and  with  it  the 
important  naval  fortress  of  Port  Arthur.  By  way  of  pecu- 
niary indemnity,  China  was  to  pay  200,000,000  Kuping  taels, 
or,  say,  $170,000,000,  in  eight  installments,  with  interest  at 
the  rate  of  five  per  cent,  on  those  unpaid.  The  commercial 
concessions  were  to  include  the  admission  of  ships  under 
the  Japanese  flag  to  the  different  rivers  and  lakes  of  China 
and  the  appointment  of  consuls;  and  the  Japanese  were  to 
retain  Wei-hai-wei  until  the  whole  indemnity  had  been 
paid  and  an  acceptable  commercial  treaty  had  been  con- 
cluded. These  terms  were  by  no  means  extreme,  in  view  of 
the  completeness  of  the  Japanese  triumph;  but  they  were 
far  from  agreeable  to  Russia,  which  foresaw  that  the  presence 


88  RUSSIA'S  OCCUPATION  OF  MANCHURIA 

of  the  Japanese  on  the  Regent's  Sword  peninsula  would  prove 
an  obstacle  to  any  future  southward  extension  through  Man- 
churia, and  to  the  attainment  of  an  ice-free  port. 

Moreover,  had  the  Japanese  been  suffered  to  remain 
on  the  mainland  of  Asia,  they,  instead  of  the  Russians,  would 
have  become  preponderant  at  Peking.  Accordingly,  the  Czar's 
advisers,  having  secured  the  co-operation  not  only  of  their 
French  ally,  but  also  of  Germany,  proceeded  to  make  a  dip- 
lomatic move,  the  aim  of  which  was  to  -despoil  the  Mikado 
of  a  part  of  the  fruits  of  victory,  much  as  Russia  herself  had 
been  despoiled  of  the  fruits  of  her  victory  over  Turkey  in  1877 
by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin.  Scarcely  was  the  ink  dry  on  the 
Treaty  of  Shimonoseki,  when  Japan  received  from  the  three 
European  powers  just  named  a  polite  request,  which  veiled, 
of  course,  a  threat,  that  she  should  waive  that  part  of  the 
Shimonoseki  Treaty  which  provided  for  the  cession  of  Port 
Arthur  and  the  Liao-tung  peninsula.  Japan  would  doubtless 
have  repelled  the  demand,  had  she  been  assured  of  Great 
Britain's  support.  But  no  assurance  to  that  effect  was 
forthcoming  from  Lord  Rosebery,  then  British  Prime  Min- 
ister, and,  accordingly,  the  Mikado  reluctantly  consented  to 
resign  his  claim  to  the  Liao-tung  peninsula  for  the  additional 
indemnity  of  $30,000,000.  The  final  installment  of  the 
indemnity  was  paid  in  May,  1898,  whereupon  Wei-hai-wei 
was  evacuated  by  the  Japanese,  in  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  the  treaty. 

The  secret  purpose  of  the  powers  concerned,  or  what 
we  may  well  conceive  to  have  been  their  purpose,  had  already 
been  made  sufficiently  evident,  it  appearing  clearly  that  they 
had  deprived  Japan  of  the  spoils  of  victory  for  their  own 
aggrandizement.  At  all  events  we  find,  soon  after  the 
evacuation  of  Wei-hai-wei  by  Japan,  Great  Britain  coming 
into  possession  of  that  stronghold  under  an  unwillingly 
granted  lease  from  China.  Near  the  close  of  1897  Germany 


THE  MIKADO  AND  HIS  CABINET 


THE  CZAR  AND  HIS  COUNSELORS 


RUSSIA'S  OCCUPATION  OF  MANCHURIA  89 

had  got  a  foothold  on  the  coast  of  China  by  a  lease  for  ninety- 
nine  years  of  the  harbor  of  Kiao-Chau,  as  a  result  of  certain 
missionary  troubles,  her  object  probably  being  to  occupy  a 
post  of  vantage  in  case  of  the  threatened  partition  of  China. 
Russia  showed  her  hand  in  a  way  far  more  calculated  to 
arouse  the  indignation  of  Japan,  by  forcing  from  China  a 
treaty,  signed  at  Peking  on  March  27,  1898,  which  gave  her 
practical  control,  through  a  lease  for  twenty-five  years,  of 
Port  Arthur  and  Talien-wan,  places  which  Japan  had  con- 
quered by  force  of  arms  and  had  been  forced  to  yield,  after 
their  cession  by  China,  through  the  threatening  attitude  of 
the  three  European  powers  named.  It  was  a  bitter  pill  for 
the  warlike  islanders  to  swallow,  and  their  seeming  acqui- 
escence covered  a  bitter  hatred  of  Russia,  a  smoldering  fire 
of  revengeful  feeling  which  was  yet  to  be  blown  into  a  flame. 

The  events  here  described  lead  us  backward  to  the 
period  of  the  occupation  of  the  Amur  region  by  Russia, 
already  described.  The  region  proved  to  be  very  thinly 
settled,  Chinese  settlers  having  scarcely  penetrated  at  all 
to  the  territory  north  of  the  great  river,  while  there  were 
very  few  of  them  on  its  southern  border.  The  treaty  of 
1858  between  China  and  Russia  gave  the  latter  country 
possession  of  all  the  territory  north  of  the  Amur  and  east 
of  the  Ussuri,  China  retaining  the  region  south  of  the  Amur 
to  the  western  bank  of  the  Ussuri.  It  was  provided  that  the 
rivers  of  the  frontier  region  should  be  open  to  navigation  to 
vessels  of  the  two  empires,  but  to  no  others. 

For  the  succeeding  forty  years  Russia  faithfully  observed 
the  stipulations  of  this  treaty,  but  during  these  years  settlers 
were  pouring  into  the  new  territory,  until  it  held  a  popula- 
tion of  350,000  Russians.  The  most  important  river  which 
Russia  had  obtained  the  right  to  navigate  under  the  treaty 
was  the  Sungari;  but,  on  account  of  native  opposition,  no 
exercise  was  made  of  this  right  until  it  was  more  definitely 


90  RUSSIA'S  OCCUPATION  OF  MANCHURIA 

asserted  in  the  treaty  of  1896,  in  which  also  was  granted  to 
the  Russo-Chinese  bank — a  diplomatic  ruse  by  the  astute 
Russians — the  right  to  build  a  railroad  through  Manchu- 
rian  territory,  and  to  occupy  Port  Arthur  as  a  naval  station. 

This  treaty  gave  the  Russian  Government  the  privilege 
of  purchasing  the  right  of  way  across  Manchuria,  from  the 
Siberian  border  at  Budalofski  to  the  border  of  the  province 
of  Ussuri,  near  Vladivostok,  and  from  Harbin  on  the  Sun- 
gari  River  to  Port  Arthur  on  the  Chinese  Sea.  It  was  stipu- 
lated that  the  president  of  the  road  should  be  a  Chinaman, 
the  flag  under  which  it  was  to  be  run  was  a  combination  of 
the  Russian  and  the  Chinese,  and  the  military  protection  of 
the  road  was  to  be  by  joint  forces  of  the  Russian  and  the 
Chinese  army.  Also,  at  the  expiration  of  a  certain  period, 
the  Chinese  were  to  have  the  option  of  purchasing  the  road. 

Upon  the  signing  of  this  treaty,  the  Russians  at  once 
abandoned  for  the  time  being  the  construction  of  the  railroad 
along  the  original  and  circuitous  route  north  of  the  Amur 
River,  and  sought  to  complete  as  soon  as  possible  the  Man- 
churian  division,  for  which  the  way  was  now  open.  The 
surveys  of  the  road,  which  is  more  than  eighteen  hundred 
miles  in  length,  were  completed  with  great  expedition,  and 
work  was  begun  at  Harbin  and  at  the  termini.  The  prosecu- 
tion of  the  work  from  Harbin  necessitated  the  immediate 
navigation  of  the  Sungari  River.  A  fleet  of  twenty-four 
river  steamers,  made  in  sections  in  England,  was  launched 
upon  the  waters  and  a  very  large  amount  of  railroad  supplies 
and  material  was  rapidly  concentrated  at  Harbin  and  the 
other  centers  of  construction. 

The  treaty  between  China  and  Russia  of  March  27, 
1898,  was  supplemented  by  an  additional  agreement  signed 
May  7,  which  greatly  added  to  the  power  which  Russia  was 
obtaining  in  Manchuria.  Under  this  agreement  it  was 
arranged  that  a  branch  of  the  Siberian  railway  should  run 


RUSSIA'S  OCCUPATION  OF  MANCHURIA  91 

from  Harbin  to  Port  Arthur  and  Talien-wan — an  enterprise 
which  had  already  been  foreseen  in  the  treaty  of  1896.  It 
was  likewise  stipulated  that  no  railway  privileges  should  be 
granted  to  the  subjects  of  any  other  power  in  the  region 
traversed  by  this  road,  that  no  foreign  concessions  should 
be  granted  in  a  zone  north  of  the  new  Russian  leaseholds,  and 
that  no  fresh  ports  should  be  opened  to  foreign  trade  in  this 
territory. 

,  By  a  later  concession  the  right  to  build  a  branch  rail- 
way from  Mukden  to  New-chwang  was  granted,  this  making 
connection  with  the  road  northward  from  Peking,  and  giving 
all-rail  connection  from  the  capitals  of  Europe  to  the  capital 
of  the  great  realm  of  the  Orient.  Such  were  the  steps  by 
which  Russia  paved  the  way  for  an  eventual  complete  control 
of  Manchuria. 

In  view  of  the  great  interest  which  these  events  have 
given  to  the  Manchurian  problem,  some  description  of  this 
important  province,  the  motherland  of  the  imperial  dynasty 
and  ruling  race  of  China,  is  here  desirable. 

Manchuria  embraces  an  extensive  region  of  northeastern 
Asia,  extending  between  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li  and  the  Yellow 
Sea  on  the  south,  to  the  Amur  River  and  Siberia  on  the  north, 
and  bounded  on  the  west  by  Chinese  Mongolia,  and  on  the 
east  by  Korea  and  the  Ussuri  boundary  of  the  Pacific  province 
of  Siberia.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Ussuri  stands  the  important 
Russian  naval  station  of  Vladivostok. 

The  territory  thus  indicated  bears  a  singular  resemblance 
to  that  part  of  the  North  American  peninsula  lying  between 
New  York  and  Hudson  Bay,  including  all  eastern  Canada, 
and  running  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  It  is 
about  400,000  square  miles  in  area,  being  one-third  larger 
than  Texas,  but  its  shape  is  so  irregular  that  fully  2,500  miles 
of  its  boundary  adjoin  Russian  territory.  The  geographical 
character  of  the  country  is  such  that  the  population  is  dis- 


9  2  7? USSIA  '5  OCCUPA  TION  OF  MANCHURIA 

tributed  in  a  very  irregular  manner.  The  northern  province 
of  Tsi-tsi-kar,  having  190,000  square  miles,  is  largely  moun- 
tainous, and  is  in  consequence  thinly  populated.  It  contains 
unknown  but  probably  vast  mineral  resources  and  extensive 
forests;  while  a  fertile  territory,  now  almost  entirely  unoc- 
cupied, extends  for  1,000  miles  along  the  south  bank  of  the 
Amur  and  its  principal  tributary,  the  Aigun.  There  are 
said  to  be  very  valuable  but  undeveloped  agricultural 
resources  in  the  valley  of  the  middle  Nonni  River  and  about 
the  head  waters  of  the  eastern  branches  of  the  Aigun;  while 
the  valley  of  the  Sungari  River  contains  thinly  inhabited 
prairies  as  extensive  as  those  of  the  upper  Mississippi  and 
apparently  as  favorable  to  cultivation. 

The  province  of  Gerin  is  likewise  largely  a  mountainous 
district,  especially  throughout  the  full  extent  of  its  south- 
eastern border,  but  contains  also  a  portion  of  the  fertile  plains 
along  the  Sungari  River.  Its  resources  are  similar  to  those 
of  Tsi-tsi-kar,  and  its  minerals,  though  largely  undeveloped, 
are  probably  of  great  value. 

The  most  populous  province  is  that  of  Liao-tung,  which 
is  penetrated  by  the  branch  line  running  from  Harbin  to 
Port  Arthur.  For  a  distance  of  400  miles,  extending  from 
the  Sungari  River  to  New-chwang,  the  railroad  passes  through 
a  level,  well-watered  region,  densely  crowded  with  population, 
and,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see,  under  the  highest  state  of  cul- 
tivation. In  traversing  it  one  rarely  sees  an  acre  that  is 
not  planted  and  carefully  freed  from  weeds. 

The  total  population  of  Manchuria  is  variously  estimated 
at  from  10,000,000  to  25,000,000;  but  there  seems  little 
doubt  that  Liao-tung  alone  has  a  population  of  as  much  as 
12,000,000,  and  that  the  total  cannot  be  much  less  than 
20,000,000.  These,  however,  are  largely  Chinese.  The  Man- 
chus  are  a  declining  race,  their  success  in  arms  having,  as  is 
often  the  case,  led  to  their  decay;  for  ever  since  the  estab- 


RUSSIA'S  OCCUPATION  OF  MAN.CHURIA  93 


iishment  of  the  Manchu  dynasty  in  China,  in  1644,  they 
been  drawn  in  large  numbers  to  Peking  and  to  the  garrisons 
stationed  in  all  the  principal  Chinese  towns.  Here,  living 
a  comparatively  idle  life,  and  depending  largely  upon  per 
sions  from  the  general  government  for  their  support,  they 
have  become  enervated;  while  the  quality  of  those  left 
behind  in  Manchuria  has  depreciated  in  character.  The 
Chinese,  on  the  other  hand,  have  gradually  invaded  Man- 
churia, till  now  they  carry  on  nearly  all  of  its  business,  and 
swarm  in  all  the  centres  of  population.  They  are  gradually 
bringing  under  cultivation  the  vast  areas  of  fertile  land 
which  under  the  Manchus  had  been  devoted  to  pasture  or 
left  to  run  to  waste. 

Even  a  hasty  glance  at  this  situation  reveals  the  points 
about  which  Russian  interests  centre  in  Manchuria.  The  first 
necessity  is  to  keep  an  open  line  of  traffic  from  Central  Siberia 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  military  advantage  of  this  would 
amply  compensate  Russia  for  all  the  expense  of  building  the 
road,  even  though  it  were  not  directly  a  financial  success. 
This,  however,  it  is  likely  to  be.  The  export  of  coarse  prod- 
ucts from  this  centre  of  Manchuria  is,  even  under  present 
conditions,  immense.  Of  this  the  railroad  will  have  almost 
a  monopoly.* 

Much  more  important  in  the  view  of  imperial  Russia 
is  the  possession,  in  Port  Arthur  and  Talien-wan,  of  practically 
ice-free  ports  on  the  waters  of  the  Pacific,  forming  naval 
stations  far  more  advantageous  than  that  of  Vladivostok, 
whose  harbor  is  closed  by  ice  for  half  the  year.  A  brief 
description  of  these  new  Russian  ports  may  properly  here 
be  given. 

Port  Arthur  —  or  Lu-Shun-kow  in  Chinese  geography- 
lies  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Liao-tung, 

*  See   "  The   Russian    Problem   in   Manchuria,"  by  G.   Frederick  Wright,  in 
•'  American  Review  of  Reviews,"  for  July,  IQOI. 


94  RUSSIA'S  OCCUPATION  OF  MANCHURIA 

between  the  Yellow  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li.  First 
fortified  as  a  naval  station  by  China  in  1881,  most  of  its 
defensive  works  were  destroyed  by  the  Japanese  in  the  war 
of  1894.  But  Russia  has  again  converted  it  into  a  modern- 
ized fortress  of  great  strength,  while  the  town  itself  has  lost 
most  of  its  Oriental  characteristics. 

The  port  or  harbor  is  a  natural  one,  though  its  limited 
basin  has  been  somewhat  widened  by  dredging.  Landlocked 
on  all  sides  but  the  south,  its  entrance  is  very  narrow,  being 
only  350  yards  wide.  It  is,  however,  deep  enough  for  the 
largest  ships.  The  interior  basin  is  about  four  miles  long  by 
one  and  a  quarter  miles  wide,  but  only  a  minor  portion  of 
this  space-  is  available  for  ships.  The  harbor  is  hemmed  in 
on  all  sides  by  barren  and  rocky  hills  from  300  to  1,500  feet 
high.  The  climate  of  the  location  is  mild  and  the  harbor 
free  from  ice  throughout  the  year.  The  dredging  operations 
will  eventually  give  an  anchorage  space  of  considerably  over 
one  square  mile,  with  four  fathoms  of  average  depth. 

The  roadstead  of  Port  Arthur  is  exposed  to  the  south- 
east winds,  a  defect  which  does  not  exist  in  the  wider  harbor 
of  Talien-wan,  which  lies  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula, 
about  twenty  miles  northeast  of  Port  Arthur.  Here  is  a 
roomy  and  ice-free  harbor,  easy  of  entrance,  which  Russia 
has  opened  to  the  world  as  a  free  commercial  port,  except 
a  corner  of  the  harbor  which  has  been  reserved  and  fortified 
as  a  naval  station. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  this  place — the  southern 
extremity  of  the  southern  Manchurian  railway — is  the  new 
town  of  Dalny,  founded  by  Russia  at  the  southern  end  of  the 
harbor.  This  town  has  been  built  on  a  generous  scale  in 
anticipation  of  a  trade  expected  to  follow  and  for  a  popula- 
tion still  to  come.  Buildings,  official  and  residential,  have 
been  here  constructed  with  little  regard  to  cost,  and  the  basin 
deepened  for  the  largest  commercial  vessels,  in  anticipation 


RUSSIA'S  OCCUPATION  OF  MANCHURIA  95 

alike  of  commerce  and  population.  The  Russians  have  a 
passion  for  building  with  completeness,  and  though  they 
must  have  realized  the  danger  of  delay  in  making  their  prin- 
cipal naval  base  impregnable,  they  diverted  precious  resources 
to  the  building  of  Dalny,  confessed  by  all  who  have  seen  it 
to  be  the  most  astonishing  achievement  in  city  creation 
known  even  in  this  age,  when  our  Western  "hustlers"  have 
astounded  the  world  by  swift  city -building. 

.  M^  de  Witte,  Prime  Minister  of  Russia,  seems  to  have 
aspired  to  the  fame  of  the  ancient  Greek  captain  general, 
Demetrius,  who  was  prouder  of  his  cognomen,  "Poliorcetes," 
city  builder,  than  conqueror  of  the  east.  Three  years  were 
almost  exclusively  devoted  to  rearing  at  Dalny  a  metropolis 
as  perfect  in  detail  as  the  best-built  metropolis  in  Europe. 
When  this  work  began  Dalny  was  simply  a  haggard  collec- 
tion of  war-worn  Chinese  hovels.  In  1903,  by  census,  the 
new  city  contained  fifty  thousand  people,  and  building  was 
still  going  for  the  occupation  of  colonies  which  had  sent  in 
application  for  quarters.  Of  these  fifty  thousand  people, 
thirty -eight  thousand  are  Chinese,  thus  making  the  hold  of 
the  Russians  rather  problematical  in  the  event  of  the  Japanese 
armies  securing  sufficient  foothold  to  lay  siege  to  Port  Arthur. 

De  Witte  copied  the  city  of  Washington  in  laying  out 
the  first  thirty-one  thousand  acres  marked  off  for  the  city; 
Dalny,  as  completed,  being  a  beautiful  city,  with  well-graded 
and  paved  avenues  radiating  in  every  direction  from  the 
municipal  buildings  in  the  centre,  with  a  national  church  at 
the  extremity  of  each  avenue.  These  acres  are  divided  into 
three  parts,  the  administrative  city  occupied  by  the  Russians 
and  general  Europeans,  then  the  Chinese  quarter,  then  the 
commercial.  Immense  plateaus  of  green  separate  the  sub- 
divisions, which,  while  adding  to  the  beauty,  would  in  case 
of  riot  or  revolt  enable  the  military  to  mass  their  forces  at 
decisive  points.  Though  the  lease  is  for  twenty-five  years. 


96  RUSSIA'S  OCCUPATION  OF  .MANCHURIA 

the  substantial  material  used  in  the  edifices  and  the  magnifi- 
cence of  the  structures  intended  for  public  use  show  that 
they  are  intended  to  last  for  centuries.  Stone,  iron  and 
brick  alone  have  been  used  in  the  buildings,  and  though  there 
are  no  such  tall  edifices  as  we  see  in  this  country,  some  of  the 
constructions  intended  for  government  use  are  models  of 
"up-to-date"  convenience  and  completeness. 

Merchants  of  every  nation  seemed  to  recognize  exactly 
what  this  experiment  in  city  creation  meant,  for  the  Viceroy 
received  requests  from  all  over  Europe  and  Asia  for  conces- 
sions— that  is,  space  to  erect  stores  and  warehouses.  The 
Russian  administration  conducted  the  "boom"  with  great 
fairness.  The  applicants  received  allotments  according  to 
the  date  of  their  demands,  and  when  special  spots  were 
coveted  too  ardently  the  auctioneer  was  summoned  to  settle 
the  matter.  The  ruling  idea  was  to  make  the  city  a  vast 
commercial  entrepot,  capable  of  accommodating  the  merchant 
navies  of  the  world.  To  this  end  the  most  approved  dock 
system  known  to  modern  commerce  was  laid  out  and  within 
two  years  the  sea  trade  of  the  town  rivaled  the  oldest  port 
in  the  Eastern  seas. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Great  Russian  Railways  in  Asia 

The  Great  Awakener — Russian  Enterprise — The  Transcaspian  Railway — The 
Fight  With  the  Desert — The  Desert  Railway  and  Its  Value — The  Railway 
-  as  a  Civilizer — The  Transsiberian  Railway  Project — The  Route  of  the  Road 
— Water  and  Rail  Transportation — All  Rail  Through  Manchuria  and  to  Port 
Arthur — The  Difficulties  of  the  Route — Strong  and  Costly  Bridges — How 
Lake  Baikal  is  Crossed — The  Mountains  of  Manchuria — Character  and  Cost 
of  the  Road — Railroads  in  China  and  Japan — The  Civilizing  Value  of  the 
Asiatic  Railways. 

THE  drowsy  Orient  has  of  late  years  been  invaded  by 
what  we  may  term  the  Great  Awakener,  and  is  begin- 
ning to  gaze  through  sleepy  eyes  upon  one  of  the  great- 
est marvels  of  the  stirring  West.  The  advent  of  the  railroad 
in  Asia,  that  realm  of  slow-moving  ease  and  conservatism, 
is  one  of  the  most  significant  events  of  the  recent  centuries. 
Outside  of  the  limits  of  British  India  it  is  one  of  the  newest 
of  facts,  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  old.  The 
railroad  in  this  continent  is  still  in  its  infancy,  it  is  true ;  but 
it  has  come  to  stay,  and  the  iron  horse  promises  to  be  one 
of  the  most  potent  genii  of  the  land  of  the  Arabian  Nights. 

The  greatest  of  the  railroad  builders  in  Asia  has  been 
the  Russian  Empire,  which  presents  us  two  memorable 
achievements  in  this  field,  the  Transcaucasian  Railway,  which 
penetrates  and  opens  up  to  commerce  the  fertile  and  popu- 
lous oases  of  Turkestan,  and  the  great  Transsiberian  Rail- 
way, which  affords  rail  communication  from  St.  Petersburg 
to  the  far-ofl  Pacific  shores.  It  is  our  purpose  here  to  describe 
these  ambitious  results  of  Russian  engineering  enterprise. 

The  first  great  achievement  of  Russian  railroad-building 

7  97 


98  THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA 

in  Asia  was  that  of  the  extensive  Transcaspian  road,  which 
penetrates  from  the  borders  of  Europe  into  the  very  heart  of 
Turkestan,  extending  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  long- 
sealed  and  mysterious  city  of  Samarcand,  the  ancient  capital 
of  Timur  the  Tartar — the  Tamerlane  of  history — in  whose 
long- silent  streets  already  is  felt  a  restless  stir,  the  first  faint 
echo  of  the  coming  roar  of  civilization.  More  recently  the 
railway  has  been  carried  far  beyond  this  original  stopping 
point,  as  we  shall  show  farther  on. 

This  railway  enterprise  began  in  1880,  a  narrow-gauge 
road  being  extended  from  the  Caspian  over  the  steppes, 
which  after  the  conquest  of  Merv  was  continued  to  the  oasis 
of  Akhal  Tekke.  The  ancient  method  of  progression,  how- 
ever, was  not  yet  ended,  the  road  being  at  first  operated  by 
camels  instead  of  locomotives.  This  method  of  travel  did 
not  long  suffice  for  the  growing  demands  of  Russian  trade, 
and  in  1885  the  emperor  ordered  that  the  narrow-gauge 
should  be  replaced  by  a  broad-gauge  road,  which  should  be 
extended  to  Samarcand,  and  completed  within  three  years. 

This  was  no  unambitious  project.  The  road  ordered 
was  to  be  nearly  one  thousand  miles  long,  and  to  be  built 
over  a  waterless  desert,  in  which  the  engineering  difficulties 
of  ordinary  railroad-building  were  replaced  by  the  necessity 
of  conquering  that  restless  enemy  of  the  engineer,  the  shifting 
sand,  and  of  supplying  water  for  thirsty  laborers  and  loco- 
motives. The  task,  however,  was  accomplished  within  the 
period  named,  the  completed  road  being  opened  to  traffic  on 
•May  27th,  1888.  The  main  purposes  of  this  road  were  mili- 
tary. Connecting,  via  the  Caspian,  with  the  railroad  system 
of  Russia  in  Europe,  it  furnished  a  ready  means  of  throwing 
an  army  into  the  heart  of  Asia,  for  repressive  or  aggressive 
operations,  as  might  be  needed.  It  was  constructed  under 
the  directions  of  General  AnnenkofT,  who  added  to  his  mili- 
tary experience  effective  engineering  ability,  and  overcame 


THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA  99 

the  natural  difficulties  of  the  way  with  much  of  that  auto- 
cratic decision  with  which  Napoleon  overcame  the  Alps. 

The  Transcaspian  Railroad  has  its  western  terminus  at 
Krasnovodsk,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Caspian,  opposite 
the  important  petroleum  district  of  Baku,  in  European 
Russia.  It  extends  by  way  of  Kizil  Arvat,  Merv,  Charjui, 
on  the  Amu  Daria  or  Oxus  River,  Bokhara,  and  Samarcand, 
to  Tashkend,  and  via  Khokan,  to  Andijan  and  Margelan, 
crgssing  eight  hundred  and  ninety  miles  of  desert,  in  addition 
to  its  extension  across  the  oases.  The  route  lies  over  two 
immense  steppes,  waterless  and  scorching  hot  in  summer, 
the  lack  of  water  and  superabundance  of  sand  being  the 
main  engineering  difficulties,  the  wind  having  an  awkward 
inclination  to  bury  the  rails  beneath  a  blanket  of  moving 
desert  soil.  To  supply  the  workmen  with  drinking  water, 
condensers  were  employed,  and  the  salt  water  of  the  Caspian 
thus  made  fresh.  This  was  conveyed  in  tuns  over  the  com- 
pleted portions  of  the  road  to  the  working  parties,  which 
comprised  in  all  about  twenty-five  thousand  men.  To  make 
a  stable  foundation  for  the  road,  salt  water  was  poured  on 
the  sand  and  this  mixed  with  clay.  The  difficulty  of  the 
drifting  sand  was  partly  got  over  by  planting  along  the  line 
of  the  road  the  steppe-scrub,  a  sand-loving  plant  which  seems 
to  nourish  without  need  of  water.  The  first  steppe  proved 
the  worst,  and  the  labor  became  pleasant  when  the  oasis  of 
Akhal  Tekke  was  reached.  The  Oxus  River  was  crossed  by 
a  great  wooden  bridge,  supported  on  an  island  in  the  middle, 
and  claimed  to  be  the  longest  in  the  world,  though  by  no 
means  solidly  or  strongly  built. 

In  the  operation  of  this  road  petroleum  is  used  as  fuel, 
the  oil  wells  at  Baku  furnishing  an  inexhaustible  supply. 
The  carriages  are  of  mixed  classes,  some  of  them  being  two 
stories  in  height,  each  story  of  a  different  class.  One  singular 
fact  connected  with  the  road  is  that  some  of  the  stations 


ioo  THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA 

were  placed  miles  from  the  line;  the  station  at  Bokhara,  for 
instance,  being  ten  miles  distant,  while  the  Samarcand 
terminus  was  five  miles  from  that  city.  The  Russians  had 
some  military  purpose  in  this.  Possibly,  also,  they  did  not 
deem  it  expedient  to  shatter  too  suddenly  the  prejudices  of 
their  new  subjects.  The  Central  Asiatics  are  not  in  love 
with  the  railroad.  They  regard  it  as  a  device  of  Shaitan, 
the  evil  spirit.  Yet  they  are  growing  accustomed  to  the 
"fire  cart,"  as  they  call  it,  and  beginning  to  find  it  a  very 
convenient  son  of  sin.  Possibly  it  may  seem  to  them  a  just 
retribution  on  the  evil  one  to  make  this  fiery  Satan  haul  their 
grain  to  market. 

The  Transcaspian  road,  indeed,  promises  to  be  of  inesti- 
mable-value in  the  industrial  development  of  Central  Asia. 
Already  in  1889  its  equipment  included  one  hundred  and 
ten  locomotives  and  one  thousand  two  hundred  carriages, 
and  these  proved  greatly  insufficient  for  the  traffic  offered. 
General  Annenkoff  stated  in  1889  that  the  net  profits  of  the 
road  to  that  time  were  $20,000,000,  and  that  72,000,000 
pounds  of  cotton  had  been  transported.  Since  then  the 
increase  has  been  steady,  and  the  road  promises  to  give  a 
great  impetus  to  cotton-growing  in  the  oases  of  Central  Asia. 

The  extension  of  the  road  from  Samarcand  to  Tashkend 
does  not  run  in  a  direct  line,  but  traverses  the  cultivated 
districts  of  Khojend,  in  order  to  approach  the  projected 
railroad  system  of  Ferghana  and  the  oil  basin  of  Turkestan. 
From  the  city  of  Merv,  near  the  northwestern  border  of  Persia, 
a  branch  line  has  been  built  southward  to  Kushk,  a  station 
less  than  a  hundred  miles  from  Herat,  the  capital  of  Afghan- 
istan. At  this  point  are  stored  fifty  miles  of  rails  and  all 
other  requisites  to  extend  the  road  to  Herat,  when  the  right 
of  way  shall  be  obtained. 

These  performances  and  projects  are  of  startling  signifi- 
cance. To  send  the  iron  horse  careering  across  the  empire 


THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA  101 

of  barbarism  and  rushing  into  the  very  metropolis  of  super- 
stition, to  disturb  the  silent  centuries  of  the  Orient  with  the 
scream  of  the  steam  whistle,  and  to  gridiron  nomadic  Turk- 
estan with  steel  rails,  are  no  everyday  achievements,  and 
it  almost  takes  one's  breath  away  to  think  of  stations  and 
time-tables  in  connection  with  the  stronghold  of  Orientalism, 
the  long-abiding  homestead  land  of  the  terrible  Tartar. 
This  son  of  the  desert  is  destined  to  be  civilized  despite 
himself,  and  to  be  taught  the  arts  and  ideas  of  the  West  by 
the  irresistible  logic  of  steam  and  iron.  Truly,  nothing  of 
greater  promise  than  this  railroading  of  Asia  has  been  per- 
formed of  recent  years.  It  signifies  the  breaking  down  of 
the  millennial  isolation  of  Asia;  the  stern  repression  of  its 
warlike  spirit ;  the  development  of  its  industries ;  the  unf old- 
ment  of  its  intellect,  and  its  invasion  by  books,  machinery, 
political  economy,  socialism,  science,  and  all  the  multitudi- 
nous arts  and  isms  which  now  lift  the  West  so  loftily  above 
the  East  in  all  the  elements  of  human  progress. 

We  have  next  to  speak  of  the  greatest  of  all  Asiatic  rail- 
road enterprises,  and  one  which  will  vie  with  the  most  exten- 
sive feats  of  railroad  engineering,  the  Transsiberian  Railroad. 
The  original  form  of  this  project  was  the  design  to  lay  across 
the  continent  of  Asia  a  continuous  line  of  rail,  four  thousand 
two  hundred  miles  long,  with  branches  bringing  the  total 
length  up  to  four  thousand  nine  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 
The  state  of  Russian  finances,  however,  checked  this  ambi- 
tious scheme,  and  in  November,  1890,  it  was  announced 
that  a  less  costly  plan  had  been  adopted,  and  that  the  road 
as  first  constructed  would  be  a  combination  of  railway  and 
waterway.  As  remodeled,  the  length  of  rail  between  Tomsk 
eastward  to  the  Pacific  port  of  Vladivostok  was  to  be  one 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  sixty-seven  and  a  half  miles,  the 
remaining  distance  being  covered  by  navigable  rivers  and 
lakes  of  Siberia. 


102  THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA 

Tomsk,  it  is  true,  lies  far  eastward  from  the  western 
border  of  Siberia,  but  a  long  reach  of  navigable  waters  on 
the  Obi  and  Irtish  Rivers  brings  it  within  effective  reach  of 
the  Ural  Mountains.  The  European  terminus  of  the  road 
was  designed  to  be  at  Samara,  on  the  Volga,  a  town  particu- 
larly suited  to  be  the  starting  point  of  the  Siberian  railroad 
system,  from  the  fact  that  a  great  iron  bridge,  the  longest  in 
Europe,  crosses  the  Volga  here,  and  thus  establishes  all-rail 
connections  with  the  general  railroad  system  of  Russia. 
Xo  less  important  is  the  fact  that  a  railroad  existed  from 
Samara  to  Ufa,  three  hundred  and  twenty  miles  eastward, 
and  that  this  Samara-Ufa  road  was  being  extended  to  Zlatoust 
in  the  Ural  Mountains,  on  the  Siberian  border.  From 
Zlatoust  the  distance  to  Tyumen,  on  the  Irtish,  was  but  a 
few  hundred  miles,  and  the  closing  of  this  gap  would  give 
continuous  rail-and-water-way  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Tomsk. 

As  projected,  the  road  eastward  was  to  run  from  Tomsk 
to  Irkutsk,  a  distance  of  over  one  thousand  one  hundred 
miles.  From  Irkutsk  the  route  was  to  be  by  water  on  Lake 
Baikal  to  Mysowaia  on  its  eastern  shore,  whence  a  railroad 
would  run  to  Stretensk  on  the  Shilka,  a  branch  of  the  great 
Amur  River.  From  Stretensk  there  would  be  an  extensive 
steamboat  link,  down  the  Shilka  to  the  Amur,  down  the  latter 
stream  to  the  mouth  of  its  southern  affluent,  the  Ussuri,  and 
up  the  Ussuri  to  Grafskaia.  From  this  point  a  short  line  of 
rail  would  reach  the  eastern  terminus,  at  the  port  of  Vladi- 
vostok, on  the  Sea  of  Japan.  The  latter  section  of  the  road, 
running  258  miles  up  the  Ussuri,  was  begun  on  June  i,  1891, 
with  the  laying  of  a  memorial  tablet  by  the  Czarewitch 
Nicholas— the  present  Czar — who  had  been  made  president 
of  the  enterprise.  Later  revisions  of  the  plan,  however, 
threw  this  section  out  of  the  direct  line  of  the  road,  though 
it  has  been  completed  for  a  distance  of  over  400  miles. 

The  plans  and  projects  for  the  Transsiberian  Railway 


THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA  103 

above  mentioned  were  changed  materially  during  the  process 
of  its  construction,  much  less  on  account  of  engineering 
difficulties  than  through  political  events.  These  gave  Russia 
an  opportunity  to  build  the  eastern  section  of  the  road  by 
the  more  southern  and  shorter  route  through  Manchuria, 
and  also  to  extend  it  southward  through  this  province  of 
China  from  Harbin  to  Port  Arthur,  and  enabled  her  to  add 
to  the  terminus  at  the  naval  station  of  Vladivostok,  ice- 
bound for  several  months  of  the  year,  one  at  Port  Arthur, 
where  a  harbor  could  be  had  practically  open  throughout 
the  year.  It  was  also  decided  to  do  away  with  the  water 
portions  of  the  route,  making  an  all-rail  line,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  forty  miles  across  Lake  Baikal,  whose  southern 
shores  presented  very  great  obstacles  to  engineering  enter- 
prise, which  it  might  take  years  to  overcome.  In  fact,  it 
was  the  sure  occurrence  of  difficulties  with  ice  that  caused 
the  abandonment  of  the  rail-and-water  for  the  all-rail  plan. 
Thus  in  the  original  plan  there  were  to  be  hundreds  of  miles 
of  water  travel  before  Tomsk  would  be  reached,  and  also 
water  travel  down  the  Amur  for  1,600  miles.  But  the  fact 
that  the  freezing  of  the  rivers  would  cut  off  all  travel  during 
four  or  five  months  of  the  year  was  a  very  satisfactory  reason 
for  the  abandonment  of  this  plan  for  the  all-rail  route. 

In  1895  the  Chinese  Government,  after  the  China- Jap- 
anese War,  accorded,  as  a  token  of  gratitude  to  Russia  for 
her  share  in  the  combined  intervention  with  France  and 
Germany  in  her  favor,  the  privilege  to  build  a  railway  through 
this  important  province,  and,  moreover,  to  occupy  the 
country  during  its  construction,  the  better  to  protect  both 
works  and  workmen.  The  privilege  was  accorded  to  the 
Russo-Chinese  Bank,  not  to  Russia  directly,  and  thus  covertly 
given  the  aspect  of  a  commercial  concession  instead  of  a 
national  one,  which  it  really  was.  This  concession  brought 
about  a  great  modification  in  the  original  route  of  the  Trans- 


io4  THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA 

Siberian  line.  The  section  in  the  Amur  from  Stretensk  to 
Khabarovsk  was  abandoned  and  replaced  by  a  Transman- 
churian  Railway  which  leaves  the  station  at  Onon,  104  miles 
west  of  Stretensk,  to  rejoin  the  original  line  at  Nikolsk,  about 
67  miles  from  Vladivostok.  Until  this  time  there  was  a  mixed 
route  of  rail  and  river  which  brought  Europe  and  the  Pacific 
into  direct  communication  during  the  summer  months.  The 
train  conveyed  travelers  from  the  Ural  to  Stretensk;  thence 
by  boat  to  Khabarovsk,  whence  the  line  continued  uninter- 
ruptedly to  Vladivostok.  A  notable  modification  was  also 
made  in  the  original  plan,  Vladivostok  being  no  longer  the 
main  terminus,  which  was  transferred  to  Port  Arthur,  530 
miles  further  south. 

The  great  difficulties  of  constructing  the  Transsiberian 
Railway  were  mainly  due  to  its  enormous  length.  Whereas 
the  Americans  had  only  2,000  miles  to  cut  in  creating  their 
line  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Pacific,  the  Russians 
thirty  years  later  had  to  lay  down  more  than  4,000  miles  of 
rail  in  order  to  reach  the  same  ocean  from  the  Ural.  Other- 
wise their  difficulties  were  very  much  less  formidable  than 
those  which  at  times  nearly  baffled  even  the  ingenuity  of  the 
Americans.  Happily  there  are  no  Rocky  Mountains  or  Sierra 
Nevada  in  Siberia  to  traverse  at  a  great  height,  but  only 
comparatively  low  ranges  like  the  Yablonovoi,  or  "Apple-Tree 
Mountains, ' '  so  called  from  their  rather  dumpy  shapes.  Then, 
again,  although  Siberia  is  at  present  not  more  densely  inhab- 
ited than  was  the  Far  West  from  1860  to  1870,  it  contains  no 
such  desolate  regions  as  the  plateaus  of  Utah  and  Nevada. 
It  may,  therefore,  be  safely  affirmed  that  from  the  engineer- 
ing point  of  view  the  task  was  a  comparatively  easy  one, 
although  the  line  has  to  pass  over  an  exceedingly  varied 
country  after  leaving  the  Ural,  and  through  interminable 
plains,  to  reach  the  undulating  regions  between  the  Obi  and 
the  Yenisei,  where  it  ascends  a  chain  of  hills  at  an  altitude 


NICHOLAS  II.,  THE  CZAR  OF   RUSSIA 


ADMIRAL  ALEXIEFF 

In  command  of  Russian  Forces  at  Port  Arthur  and  the  Fleet  in  Chinese  waters 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  War. 


THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA  105 

of  not  less  than  2,000  feet  on  the  road  from  the  Yenisei  to 
Irkutsk.  On  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Baikal  the  railway  grad- 
ually ascends  to  an  altitude  of  not  less  than  3,500  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  water,  whence  it  descends  in  rapid  zigzag 
into  the  valleys  of  the  Ingoda  and  the  Shilka,  cuts  the 
abrupt  spurs  of  some  very  high  mountains,  and  passes  into 
marshlands,  where,  by  the  way,  the  engineers  have  had  to 
overcome  their  greatest  obstruction,  mainly  due  to  the 
unstable  condition  of  the  soil.  When,  therefore,  we  take 
into  consideration  that  between  the  Amur  and  the  Ural  there 
is  not  a  single  tunnel,  we  may  safely  conclude  that,  if  it  were 
not  for  its  enormous  length,  this  now  famous  line  has  not 
been  from  the  engineering  point  of  view  as  arduous  an  under- 
taking even  as  have  been,  for  instance,  some  of  the  much 
shorter  lines  nearer  home. 

The  bridges,  on  the  other  hand,  are  very  remarkable  and 
numerous,  and  some  of  them  required  great  skill  in  their 
construction,  since  they  span  the  more  important  rivers  of 
Siberia,  which,  with  the  exception  of  those  in  the  basin  of 
the  Amur,  invariably  flow  due  north.  There  are  four  prin- 
cipal bridges,  of  which  two  cross  the  Irtish  and  the  Obi  respec- 
tively, each  2,750  feet  in  length;  the  other  two  span  the  Yeni- 
sei and  the  Selenga,  and  are  about  3,000  feet  in  length.  These 
four  bridges  were  exceedingly  costly,  necessitating  the  erection 
of  stone  piles  of  prodigious  strength,  capable  of  resisting  the 
shock  of  the  enormous  masses  of  floating  ice.  The  minor 
bridges,  some  of  them  700  to  900  feet  in  length,  are  very 
numerous;  but,  beyond  the  difficulty  of  fixing  them  firmly  a 
great  distance  on  either  side  of  the  rivers,  owing  to  the  marshy 
nature  of  the  soil  on  the  immediate  banks,  it  needed  no 
superlative  skill  on  the  part  of  the  engineers  who  superin- 
tended their  erection. 

The  crossing  of  Lake  Baikal  presented  a  serious  obstacle, 
from  the  fact  that  this  large  body  of  water  is  closed  by  ice 


io6  THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA 

during  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year.  Great  ice-break- 
ing ferryboats  are  used  to  cross  the  forty  miles  of  lake  during 
the  open  season  and  when  the  ice  is  not  too  thick.  At  times 
\t  is  impassable,  except  across  the  ice  surface.  The  dense 
fogs  which  often  prevail  in  summer  may  cause  a  detention 
of  the  boats  for  hours,  and  at  times  for  days,  before  they 
can  venture  to  cross.  In  the  winter  the  ice  presents  a  far 
greater  obstacle.  The  carrying  of  the  line  of  rail  round  the 
southern  border  of  Lake  Baikal  is  hindered  by  precipitous 
mountains  which  plunge  directly  into  the  water,  and  can 
be  passed  only  by  long  and  costly  tunnels.  While  the  con- 
struction of  this  has  been  undertaken,  it  can  hardly  be  com- 
pleted in  less  than  several  years. 

The  line  across  Manchuria  to  Vladivostok  presented 
much  greater  engineering  difficulties  than  that  through 
western  Siberia,  as  it  had  to  be  carried  over  a  succession  of 
mountain  ridges  and  intervening  valleys,  two  of  the  ridges 
being  over  3,000  feet  high.  In  addition  to  this  successive 
climb  and  descent  was  the  unstable  nature  of  the  soil,  which 
consisted  in  the  valleys  of  a  vast  lake  of  mud.  Fortunately 
a  solid  bed  of  gravel  existed  about  three  or  four  feet  beneath 
the  surface,  which  offered  a  satisfactory  foundation  for  the 
line.. 

The  total  length  of  this  great  railway  from  Moscow  to 
Vladivostok  is  7,979  versts,  and  to  Port  Arthur  731  versts 
farther— a  total  of  over  5,200  miles.  No  other  continuous 
line  in  the  world  nearly  equals  it  in  length.  If  it  could  be 
traversed  at  the  speed  of  forty  or  fifty  miles  an  hour,  as  on 
the  great  express  lines  of  Europe  and  America,  the  distance 
from  St.  Petersburg  to  Port  Arthur  might  be  traversed  in  a 
week;  but  it  has  been  built  in  much  too  primitive  a  fashion 
for  any  such  rates  of  travel,  even  for  short  distances.  It  is  a 
single-track  road,  with  switches  a  long  distance  apart,  though 
the  length  of  side  rail  is  considerable.  The  rails  of  the  Siberian 


THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA  107 

section  are  of  the  lightest  kind,  weighing  fifty  pounds  to  the 
yard,  as  against  the  standard  American  rail  of  about  eighty- 
five  pounds.  In  addition  to  this  it  is,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Manchurian  section,  poorly  constructed  and  in  places 
very  badly  engineered,  and  unfitted  to  bear  greater  speeds 
than  twenty  miles  an  hour.  In  fact,  the  fast  train  which 
leaves1  Moscow  weekly,  takes  eighteen  days  to  reach  Vladivo- 
stok, and  twenty  to  Port  Arthur — if  it  has  good  luck.  The 
slow  train,  starting  daily,  takes  at  least  a  month.  As  regards 
the  carriage  of  freight,  the  best  it  has  yet  been  able  to  do 
was  to  carry  1,000,000  tons  a  year.  It  could  hardly  be  pushed 
to  carry  more  than  1,500,000.  The  Pennsylvania  system,  of 
about  the  same  mileage,  can  handle  from  75,000,000  to  100,- 
000,000  tons  a  year.  It  seems,  in  consequence,  a  well-founded 
opinion  that  this  flimsily  built  road,  with  its  small  sum  of 
rolling  stock,  cannot  bear  the  heavy  transport  of  troops  and 
supplies  necessary  for  a  war,  but  will  break  down  under  the 
strain. 

Everything  has  been  done  for  the  benefit  of  first-class 
travelers,  alike  in  regard  to  the  warmth  and  comfort  of  the 
cars,  the  supply  of  palatable  food  at  the  restaurants,  and  even 
the  station  bookstall,  at  which  a  satisfactory  supply  of  reading 
matter  may  be  obtained.  The  trains  themselves  have  excel- 
lent restaurants  and  well-stocked  libraries,  and  copy  some- 
what closely  the  luxurious  accommodations  provided  on  the 
best  American  trains.  As  for  the  transportation  of  laborers, 
emigrants,  military  recruits,  etc.,  no  such  attention  to  com- 
fort is  given,  yet  the  demands  for  this  class  of  travelers  are  so 
great  that  the  government  has  been  obliged  to  enlarge  the 
rolling  stock  for  this,  the  fourth-class  service,  to  7,000  cars. 

The  nations  immediately  connected  with  Russia  in  the 
events  with  which  this  book  is  concerned  have  not  failed 
to  pay  a  degree  of  attention  to  railway  building,  especially 
the  progressive  country  of  Japan,  whose  people  have  been  so 


roS  THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA 

active  in  railway  building  that  they  are  said  to  have  con- 
structed 3,000  miles  of  road.  In  China  the  enterprise  has 
not  come  from  within,  but  from  without.  The  first  short 
line  was  built  by  British  promoters  in  1876,  but  this  was  torn 
up  by  the  Chinese,  and  the  true  era  of  railway  construction 
began  in  1881.  In  1899  there  were  not  only  566  miles  under 
operation,  but  6,000  miles  were  projected,  and  concessions 
granted  for  half  this  amount.  Though  much  of  the  com- 
pleted work  was  destroyed  during  the  madness  of  the  Boxer 
outbreak,  there  were  in  use  at  the  beginning  of  1904  about 
750  miles.  One  of  the  lines  extended  northward  from  Peking 
to  Shan-hai-kwan,  where  the  Great  Wall  of  China  reaches 
the  sea,  and  there  connected  with  a  branch  of  the  Russian 
Manchurian  line  from  Mukden,  the  capitals  of  Russia  and 
China  being  thus  connected  by  rail. 

It  may  be  said  further  that  a  branch  road  is  projected 
in  the  opposite  direction  from  Mukden  to  Wiju,  a  town  on  the 
Korean  side  of  the  Yalu  River.  This  it  was  the  Russian 
design  to  extend  eventually  southward  to  Seoul,  the  capital 
of  Korea.  This  capital  city  has  already  been  connected  by 
a  short  and  well-built  railway  with  its  port  of  Chemulpo  on 
the  western  coast.  This  was  the  work  of  Japan,  which  has 
also  practically  completed  a  much  longer  road  from  Fusan, 
on  the  southern  coast  of  Korea,  northward  to  Seoul/which 
will  be  of  very  material  utility  in  the  transportation  of 
troops. 

The  Russian  railroads  in  Asia  are  destined  to  be  of  the 
utmost  future  importance  in  both  military  and  commercial 
directions,  and  to  play  a  leading  part  in  the  coming  history 
of  that  continent.  By  the  aid  of  the  Transcaspian  road, 
with  its  connections  with  the  European  system,  the  Russian 
army  can  be  quickly  concentrated  in  force  on  the  borders  of 
Afghanistan,  in  readiness  to  be  poured  into  India  in  the 
event  of  any  future  war  with  England.  It  will  be  of  equal 


THE  GREAT  RUSSIAN  RAILWAYS  IN  ASIA  109 

advantage  in  aiding  any  Russian  projects  -for  the  acquisition 
of  more  territory  in  central  or  southern  Asia,  and  in  keep- 
ing the  Turkoman  population  of  the  steppes  in  peaceful  sub- 
jection. Commercially  it  gives  Russia  an  immense  advan- 
tage in  its  competition  with  England  and  France  for  the 
markets  of  Central  Asia,  and  must  lead  to  a  great  develop- 
nient  of  the  material  resources  of  the  oases  of  Turkestan, 
and  particularly  of  the  cotton  culture,  which  is  now  being 
actively  pursued  in  Turkestan  and  Ferghana.  That  a 
demand  for  European  wares  will  grow  up  among  the  Asiatic 
agriculturists  is  beyond  question,  and  the  energetic  desert 
nomads,  having  lost  their  favorite  amusement  of  war  and 
pillage,  may  join  the  inhabitants  of  the  oases  in  gaining 
new  ideas,  habits  and  industries  when  the  iron  web  of  the 
railroad  has  been  stretched  far  and  wide  through  their  country. 

The  Transsiberian  road  can  be  of  no  less  utility  from 
both  points  of  view,  that  of  enabling  Russia  to  control  its 
restless  population  in  Siberia  and  the  steppes  and  to  hold  a 
continual  threat  over  China,  and  that  of  inducing  a  rapid 
growth  of  population  and  an  immense  development  of  agri- 
culture and  mining  in  Siberia,  and  opening  a  great  overland 
trade  with  China. 

For  centuries  past  Western  civilization  has  beaten  like 
the  waves  of  a  sea  on  the  shores  of  Eastern  barbarism,  with 
scarcely  a  breach  in  their  firm  barrier.  At  length  the  barrier 
is  broken.  With  the  extension  of  the  railroad  it  promises 
to  spread  over  the  Oriental  world  like  an  inundation. 
Gradually  hostility  must  be  repressed,  industry  aroused 
and  taught  new  methods,  machinery  introduced,  new  reli- 
gious, political  and  economical  ideas  penetrate,  and  the 
coming  generation  is  likely  to  see  the  growth  of  a  radical 
improvement  in  the  conditions  of  Asiatic  communities  in 
general,  perhaps  not  less  marked  than  that  which  is  progress- 
ing under  our  eyes  in  Japan. 


'CHAPTER  X. 

Russia's  Hold  on  Chinese  Territory 

The  Boxer  Outbreak  and  Its  Results — The  Attack  on  the  Manchurian  Railways — • 
The  Chinese  in  Arms  and  the  Russians  in  Flight — The  Terrible  Work  at 
Blagovestchensk — The  Russian  Invasion  and  Reoccupation  of  Manchuria — 
The  Powers  Dissatisfied — The  Russo-Chinese  Manchurian  Treaty — Count 
Lamsdorff's  Statement — Views  of  Mr.  Colquhoun — The  Broken  Pledge  to 
Evacuate — How  Russia  Policed  the  Railway — The  Feeling  in  Japan — Peril 
of  the  Island  Empire — Russian  Steps  of  Occupation  in  Korea — Japan  Vigor- 
ously Protests  and  Grows  Warlike. 

THE  final  great  event  in  the  history  of  Russia's  advance 
in  Asia — succeeding  the  lease  of  Port  Arthur  and 
Talien-wan  in  1898,  and  the  concessions  of  territo- 
rial right  in  1896,  to  construct  a  railway  through  northern 
Manchuria,  and  subsequently  a  branch  road  from  •  Harbin 
to  Port  Arthur — came  after  the  great  Boxer  outbreak  in 
China  in  1900.  This,  with  the  military  activity  of  the  nations 
having  diplomatic  relations  with  China  in  protection  of  their 
'embassies,  offered  an  excellent  opportunity  to  obtain  rights 
in  China  without  waiting  on  the  deliberate  methods  of 
diplomacy,  an  opportunity  which  Russia  employed  to  tighten 
her  hold  on  Manchuria. 

The  violent  assault  by  the  Boxers  on  the  quarters  occu- 
pied by  the  foreign  ambassadors  at  Peking  called  out  an 
allied  force  of  European,  American,  and  Japanese  troops, 
which  marched  upon  and  took  Peking,  rescuing  the  threat- 
ened embassies  and  defeating  the  insurgent  Chinese.  In 
this  Russia  took  part.  But  aside  from  this  she  had  a  part 
of  her  own  to  take,  that  of  protecting  her  railway  through 
Manchuria,  which  had  been  attacked  and  very  seriously 


RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE   TERRITORY  in 

injured  by  the  hostile  inhabitants  of  the  province.  Russia 
possessed  by  treaty  the  right  of  protecting  this  property, 
and  did  not  hesitate  to  make  active  use  of  her  privilege. 

The  road  in  question  had  been  largely  built  by  Chinese 
laborers,  and  was  protected  in  great  measure  by  Chinese 
soldiers,  there  being  at  that  time  ve*y  few  Cossack  soldiers 
in  the  province.  But  when  the  outbreak  began,  the  fidelity 
of  these  workers  and  soldiers  quickly  reached  the  vanishing 
point.  In  the  words  of  G.  Frederick  Wright,  who  was  visit- 
ing that  region  during  the  insurrection,  the  entire  population 
of  Manchuria  turned  upon  the  foreigners  with  scarcely  a 
moment's  warning.  Two  weeks  later, — he  continues, —  upon 
going  up  the  Amur  River,  we  found  the  Russian  steamers 
thronged  with  fugitive  women  and  children,  a  number  of 
whom  had  hospitably  entertained  us  in  the  centre  of  Man- 
churia. A  few  days  after  our  passage  through  the  country, 
these  had  barely  escaped  with  their  lives.  It  is  difficult  to 
realize  the  suddenness  with  which  this  storm  burst  upon  the 
Russians.  To  meet  it  there  was  no  preparation.  The  engi- 
neers with  their  families  were  not  adequately  guarded,  and 
the  vast  property  of  the  railroad  was  everywhere  exposed. 
To  the  extent  of  their  ability  the  Chinese  destroyed  this  prop- 
erty, and  it  was  only  by  the  most  hasty  flight  that  any  of  the 
foreigners  escaped.  These  facts  ought  definitely  to  dispel 
the  impression  which  has  prevailed  in  many  quarters  that 
the  war  in  China  was  fomented  by  the  Russians  in  anticipa- 
tion of  the  great  advantages  which  they  were  going  to  reap 
from  it. 

After  reaching  Khabarovsk,  and  visiting  Vladivostok, 
we  proceeded  up  the  Amur  River  on  July  1 1 ,  when  we  had 
ample  opportunities  to  see  the  frantic  efforts  made  by  the 
Russians  to  repair  their  mistake  and  send  a  military  force  to 
Harbin  for  the  protection  of  their  property.  With  great 
haste  the  troops  already  in  quarters  had  been  forwarded 


ii2  RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE  TP:RRITORY 

from  Vladivostok  to  Tien-tsin ;  and,  though  the  whole  reserve 
force  of  the  Amur  district  was  mobilized  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
there  was  necessarily  much  delay.  The  desperateness  o'f  the 
situation  was  shown  in  the  fact  that  the  Russians  brought 
down  all  their  regimerts  stationed  at  Blagovestchensk,  num- 
bering about  five  thousand  men,  and  sent  them  up  the  Sun- 
gari  River  to  protect  the  property  at  Harbin.  This  left 
Blagovestchensk  defenseless  until  other  Russian  troops  could 
be  brought  down  the  river  from  Transbaikalia,  700  miles  to 
the  west.  But  as  the  water  was  low,  these  troops  were  long 
delayed. 

Meanwhile  the  Chinese,  having  quietly  but  rapidly 
brought  up  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  a  large  force,  with 
five  cannon,  and  thrown  up  earthworks  for  a  distance  of  about 
three  miles,  without  a  moment's  warning  began  firing  upon 
the  city;  while,  a  few  miles  below,  the  Chinese  fort 'at  Aigun 
opened  fire  upon  the  Russian  steamboats  that  were  passing 
down. 

What  added  to  the  difficulty  of  the  situation  for  the 
Russians  was  that  there  were  3,000  Chinese  living  in  the 
city,  and  25,000  living  in  villages  on  the  Russian  side,  from 
ten  to  twenty  miles  below  the  city.  It  was  at  once  evident 
that  these  were  a  source  of  weakness  to  the  Russians ;  and  so 
like  a  thunderclap  had  this  hostility  of  the  Chinese  burst  upon 
them  that  they  naturally  felt  that  no  Chinaman  could  under 
the  circumstances  be  trusted.  It  seemed  therefore  a  military 
necessity  of  the  most  urgent  kind  for  the  Russians  to  clear 
the  Chinese  away  from  their  side  of  the  river  if  they  would 
protect  their  own  households.  What  was  done  was  not 
through  orders  from  the  central  government,  but  from  a 
spontaneous  impulse  of  self-preservation. 

It  was  a  fearful  sight  to  drive  as  we  did  through  these 
burning  villages,  which  the  Cossacks  were  still  setting  on 
fire,  and  see  everywhere  the  signs  of  utter  desolation  which 


RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE  TERRITORY  113 

prevailed.  Not  a  Chinaman  was  visible.  The  disconsolate 
flocks  of  geese  and  herds  of  swine  and  clusters  of  subdued 
dogs  huddling  together  in  the  open  squares,  with  smoldering 
buildings  all  around,  have  left  a  picture  on  our  minds  that 
cannot  soon  be  forgotten.  The  thousands  of  men,  women, 
and  children  in  these  villages  had  disappeared,  no  one  would 
ever  know  where.  Probably  few  of  them  escaped  death. 
The  fate  of  the  3,000  Chinese  in  the  city  of  Blagovestchensk 
is  well  known.  In  attempting  to  cross  the  river  to  join  their 
own  countrymen  they  nearly  all  perished.  Two  days  after 
the  catastrophe,  we  could  count  hundreds  of  their  bodies 
floating  down  the  stream. 

As  to  which  side  was  responsible  for  this  massacre  authori- 
ties disagree.  Mr.  Wright  states  that  rafts  were  provided 
'for  the  fugitives,  who  were  started  safely  on  their  way.  But 
the  rafts  were  of  the  frailest  character,  and  were  so  over- 
crowded that  they  soon  went  to  pieces,  the  disaster  being 
hastened,  as  Mr.  Wright  says,  by  the  Chinese  themselves 
opening  fire  on  them.  The  consequent  panic  resulted  in  the 
drowning  of  nearly  the  entire  number.  For  this  massacre 
the  Russians  have  been  held,  by  most  writers,  wilfully  respon- 
sible, a  charge  improbable  in  itself,  and  negatived  by  the 
above  statement  from  a  visitor  shortly  after  its  occurrence. 

The  temporary  reverse  to  the  Russians  in  Manchuria, 
due  to  the  general  hostility  of  its  people  and  the  paucity  of 
Russian  soldiers  in  the  province,  was  rapidly  repaired,  troops 
being  hurried  there  from  all  accessible  points  with  all  possible 
expedition.  Soon  strong  bodies  of  Cossack  and  other  soldiers 
advanced  into  the  province,  defeating  the  Chinese  wherever 
met,  capturing  towns  on  the  Amur  and  southward,  slaughter- 
ing all  who  opposed  them-,  and  rapidly  taking  possession 
of  the  most  important  points. 

Their  progress  forward  Was  practically,  though  not 
avowedly,  a  conquest  of  Manchuria.  The  large  city  of  Kirin, 

s 


ii4  RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE  TERRITORY 

nearly  400  miles  south  of  the  Amur,  was  captured  and  occu- 
pied, and  soon  after  ancient  Mukden,  the  sacred  city  of  the 
empire,  lying  far  southward  in  the  province,  was  invested 
and  taken.  All  this  was  declared  by  the  Russians  to  be  "a 
terrible  vengeance"  for  the  Chinese  invasion  of  Siberia  and 
the  sudden  attack  on  Blagovestchensk.  As  regards  the 
assumed  purpose  of  Russia  to  annex  Manchuria,  however, 
this  was  definitely  denied  by  the  government,  which  claimed 
to  have  merely  established  military  protection  over  threat- 
ened localities  near  the  Amur  and  along  the  line  of  the  rail- 
way, leaving  the  remainder  of  the  province  unoccupied. 
The  occupation,  however,  seems  to  have  been  60,000  strong. 

Despite  the  fact  that  the  allied  powers  had  come  to  an 
understanding  not  to  take  possession  of  any  Chinese  territory, 
Russia  continued  her  occupation  of  Manchuria  after  the  troops 
had  been  withdrawn  from  Chinese  soil,  and  disquieting 
reports  of  agreements  signed  between  Russian  and  Chinese 
statesmen  were  promulgated  from  time  to  time.  There 
were  what  seemed  strong  indications  that  Russia  proposed 
to  obtain,  through  the  unwilling  concurrence  of  China,  a 
protectorate  over  Manchuria,  a  stepping  stone,  it  was  believed, 
to  a  final  ownership  of  the  province. 

Much  as  the  other  powers  felt  dissatisfied  with  this  action 
on  the  part  of  Russia,  they  had  little  or  no  opening  for  a  pro- 
test. When  China,  during  the  Boxer  outbreak,  attacked  the 
Russians  and  their  railway  in  Manchuria,  making  a  path 
marked  by  destruction  of  Russian  property  and  life  as  far 
as  to  the  Russian  boundary  along  the  Amur,  and  then  crossed 
that  river  and  invaded  Siberia,  Russia  availed  herself  to  the 
full  of  her  leasehold  rights,  sending  large  armies,  retaking  her 
railwa}^  property,  and,  for  the  requisite  protection  against 
recurrence  of  such  a  sudden  craze,  assuming  military  possession 
and  control  of  large  areas  along  the  railways,  naturally  includ- 
:ng  the  chief  towns  of  the  province,  Such  was  the  military 


RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE  TERRITORY  115 

possession  and  control  which  the  later  agreement  between 
China  and  Russia  was  supposed  to  have  developed,  organized 
and  continued  indefinitely.  It  was  difficult  for  any  of  the 
powers  to  show  precisely  where,  in  terms,  this  movement 
violated  the  agreement  by  them  all  not  to  use  their  armed 
entrance  into  China  for  annexation  of  territory.  Russic 
rrjade-no  "annexation,"  though  that  might  be  prophesied  as 
<th'e  ultimate  result  of  her  action.  Moreover,  in  the  whole 
dealing  with  Manchuria  the  allied  powers  had  no  part ;  Russia 
stood  alone,  her  action  having  no  immediate  connection  with 
the  movement  on  Peking. 

In  February,  1901,  reports  were  heard  of  a  further  and 
more  important  treaty  or  agreement  between  China  and 
Russia,  definitely  fixing  the  relative  position  of  these  powers 
in  Manchuria.  China  was  to  resume  the  entire  civil  govern- 
ment of  that  province  of  the  empire,  while  Russia  was  to 
increase  the  number  of  her  soldiers  doing  police  duty  along 
the  railway,  and  maintain  a  strong  protective  force  until  the 
country  had  resumed  its  former  peaceful  condition.  No  Chi- 
nese soldiers  were  to  be  stationed  in  the  province  until  after 
the  railway  was  completed,  and  the  importation  of  arms 
into  Manchuria  was  forbidden.  The  number  of  Chinese  police 
patrols  to  be  permitted  was  to  be  left  to  Russia  to  decide. 

This  reported  convention  caused  a  considerable  inter- 
national disturbance,  especially  as  some  of  its  stipulations 
indicated  that  the  ambitious  designs  of  Russia  were  not 
confined  to  Manchuria,  but  had  in  view  the  ultimate  acqui- 
sition of  the  much  larger  region  of  Chinese  Mongolia  and 
Turkestan,  an  exclusive  interest  in  their  mining  and  other 
industries  being  reserved  for  Russia.  The  existence  of  such 
a  convention,  however,  was  denied  by  Count  Lamsdorff, 
Russian  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  who  declared  that  the 
rumor  arose  from  a  modus  vivendi  which  the  Russian 
military  authorities  had  been  directed  to  arrange  with  the 


n6  RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE  TERRITORY 

Chinese  local  civil  authorities  in  order  to  provide  for  "  the 
simultaneous  presence  of  Russians  and  Chinese  in  southern 
Manchuria,"  without  a  "recurrence  of  disturbances  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Russian  frontier;"  also  in  order  to  protect  the 
railway  to  Port  Arthur. 

"  No  arrangement  with  the  central  government  of  China 
or  of  a  permanent  character  had  been  concluded  with  regard 
to  Manchuria."  The  Czar  had  no  intention  "of  departing 
in  any  way  from  the  assurances  which  he  had  publicly  given 
that  Manchuria  would  be  entirely  restored,  to  its  former 
condition  in  the  Chinese  empire  as  soon  as  circumstances 
admitted."  Russia  could  no  more  fix  the  final  date  for 
evacuating  Manchuria  than  could  the  allies  for  evacuating 
the  capital  and  the  province  of  Pe-chi-li.  Russia  would  first 
"obtain  from  the  central  government  of  China  an  effective 
guarantee  against  recurrence  of  the  recent  attack  on  her 
frontier  and  the  destruction  of  her  railway;  but  she  had  no 
intention  of  seeking  this  guarantee  in  any  acquisition  of  terri- 
tory or  an  actual  or  virtual  protectorate  of  Manchuria." 

This  disclaimer  by  Count  Lamsdorff  was  somewhat 
doubtfully  received  by  the  powers.  Whatever  were  the 
actual  terms  of  the  supposed  agreement,  China  refused  to 
accept  it,  and  it  was  withdrawn  by  Russia  on  April  5,  1901. 
The  Russian  occupation  continued  intact,  however ;  and  later 
on,  another  treaty  was  negotiated,  apparently  on  much  the 
same  lines  as  before,  but  more  cleverly  worded,  in  order  to 
allay  Chinese  susceptibility.  The  promise  to  restore  to  China 
the  railway  from  New-chwang  to  Shan-hai-kwan,  at  the 
extremity  of  the  Great  Wall,  was  a  powerful  lever  in  the 
hands  of  the  Russian  envoy.  The  negotiation  of  this  treaty, 
however,  was  suspended  at  the  death  of  Li  Hung  Chang, 
who  was  concerned  in  it  on  the  side  of  China.  It  was  resumed 
December  20,  1901,  but  was  delayed  through  Chinese  unwill- 
ingness to  agree  to  the  Russian  demands. 


RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE  TERRITORY  117 

As  eventually  agreed  upon,  Russia  covenanted  to  return 
to  China  within  a  stated  period  the  Manchurian  province, 
removing  her  troops  in  three  instalments,  the  first  in  October, 
1902,  the  second  in  April,  1903,  the  final  evacuation  to  take 
place  on  October  8,  1903.  The  Manchurian  and  the  Shan- 
hai-kwan  railways  were  to  be  surrendered  to  China — though 
subject  to  the  concessions  Russia  had  obtained — and  "  Russia 
was  to  be  relied  upon  exclusively  to  protect  the  line."  As 
for  the  Chinese  military  forces  in  Manchuria,  they,  while 
nominally  commanded  by  a  Tartar  general,  were  to  be  drilled 
and  disciplined  exclusively  by  Russian  officers. 

In  addition,  the  treaty  exclusively  reserved  for  Russia 
all  mining  and  commercial  rights  and  privileges  in  the  prov- 
ince— a  reservation  of  considerable  moment,  and  not  well 
in  agreement  with  the  "open  door"  policy  advocated  by  the 
other  nations.  In  regard  to  the  methods  pursued  by  Russia, 
we  may  quote  from  a  recent  paper  by  Mr.  Colquhoun,  in  the 
London  Morning  Post.  In  his  view  it  matters  little  what  are 
the  terms  of  the  Russo-Chinese  convention,  the  vital  point 
being,  not  what  Russia  promises,  but  what  she  has  done 
and  is  doing  in  Manchuria.  He  further  says,  referring  to 
Russian  diplomatic  methods: 

"  The  first  step  of  the  military  in  occupying  the  country, 
was  either  to  square  or  crush  the  leading  officials.  Such  as 
were  amenable  were  placated  with  presents  and  retained  in 
office;  some  even  paid  visits  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  they 
were  most  graciously  received.  Those  who  did  not  fall  in 
with  Russian  views  were  removed  at  once  without  any  regard 
to  efficiency.  The  tactics  pursued  during  the  earlier  portion 
of  the  campaign  in  Manchuria  was  followed  by  a  period  during 
which  the  lavish  expenditure  on  public  works,  railways, 
buildings,  roads  and  bridges,  employing  some  50,000  Chinese, 
restored  prosperity  to  the  country,  but  a  prosperity,  be  it 
noted,  which  had  its  rise  in  Russian  sources.  It  is  not  sur- 


n8  RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE  TERRITORY 

prising  in  these  circumstances  that  the  people  became  recon- 
ciled to  their  conquerors  and  appreciated  the  advantages 
they  were  reaping  in  increased  wages,  plentiful  work  and 
safety  from  the  banditti." 

The  view  of  coming  events  taken  by  Mr.  Colquhoun 
proved  to  be  in  close  accordance  with  the  facts,  as  subse- 
quently developed.  The  partial  evacuation  promised  for 
October,,  1902,  did  not  take  place.  When  April,  1903, 
arrived  Russia  claimed  that  the  non-arrival  of  the  Chinese 
Taotai  prevented  the  formal  restitution  of  the  city  of  New- 
chwang  to  China;  later  in  the  month  the  organization  of  an 
international  commission  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  bubonic 
plague  was  offered  as  an  excuse ;  again  Russia  claimed  to  be 
holding  the  city  on  account  of  the  presence  of  German  and 
American  gunboats  in  the  harbor.  Russia  had  formally 
pledged  itself  three  times  that  the  "open  door"  should  be 
maintained  in  Manchuria,  and  that  the  troops  should  be 
withdrawn  as  soon  as  peace  was  restored,  but  when  the  time 
came  inclination  seemed  wanting. 

The  failure  to  carry  out  the  pledges  was  looked  upon 
by  the  powers  as  a  distinct  breach  of  faith.  Japan  and 
Great  Britain  made  formal  protests  and  other  powers  showed 
their  displeasure  in  a  diplomatic  way.  The  protests  seemed 
to  have  effect,  inasmuch  as  Russia  hastened  to  assure  the 
world  that  her  intentions  were  not  to  retain  any  military 
occupancy  of  the  territory,  but  to  exercise  a  protective  con- 
trol for  a  short  period.  New-chwang  was  evacuated,  but  on 
May  8  was  reoccupied  with  a  larger  force  of  troops,  only  to 
be  again  freed  on  May  9.  On  May  12  Manchuria  was  declared 
open  by  Russia,  foreigners  being  given  the  right  to  trade  there 
without  Russian  passports.  In  June  it  was  reported  that 
Russia  was  building  permanent  houses  and  barracks  in  the 
province  with  every  sign  of  establishing  herself  more  firmly. 
fo  July  a  more  active  movement  of  troops  took  place,  which 


RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE  TERRITORY  n0 

again  brought  out  protests  from  the  powers.     In  September 

Russia  again  offered  to  withdraw  under  certain  conditions, 

which  were  of  the  nature  of  demands  upon  China,  and  seemed 

evidence  of  -Russia's  intention  to  hold  the  province  in  spite 

of  the  protests,  and  the  final  period  of  October  8,  1903,  passed 

^without  a  soldier  being  withdrawn.     The  conditions  demanded 

'hvere  of  a  character  which  China  positively  refused  to  concede, 

and  the  occupation,  in  consequence,  continued. 

As  concerns  the  actual  character  of  the  Russian  hold 
on  Manchuria,  a  brief  statement  may  here  be  offered. 

In  the  course  of  surveying  and  constructing  the  railway, 
fortified  posts  were  established  from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  apart 
along  the  line  and  occupied  by  troops,  Chinese  and  Russian. 
Russian  dress,  food  and  liquor  being  entirely  different  from 
those  of  the  Manchus,  Russian  merchants  were  necessary 
adjuncts  to  the  advance  bodies  of  engineers  and  Cossacks. 
Every  post  became  a  Russian  settlement,  with  its  stores  and 
buildings,  and  in  the  large  towns  and  cities  the  Russian 
section  became  an  important  part.  *  The  course  of  the  rail- 
ways includes  most  of  the  important  towns  and  cities.  Russia 
put  a  liberal  estimate  on  the  possibility  of  trouble  and  on  the, 
number  of  troops  necessary  to  guard  her  property  and  sub- 
jects, and  took  advantage  of  the  slightest  disturbance  to 
greatly  increase  the  force.  The  troops  bore  the  milder  term 
of  railway  police,  but  the  term  did  not  change  the  fact  of 
military  occupation.  The  country  had  thus  become  well 
occupied  and  Russianized  before  the  time  of  the  Boxer 
^uprising,  and  has  been  more  fully  occupied  since.  It  may 
be  said  further  that  the  project  is  entertained  of  building  a 
new  railway  to  the  Siberian  line,  more  direct  than  that  to 
Harbin,  and  crossing  the  territory  of  Chinese  Mongolia,  a 
vast  district  in  which  Russia  has  made  various  steps  of  advance 
and  is  supposed  to  view  with  covetous  eyes. 

These  steps  of  Russian  diplomacy  did  not  go  on  without 


120  RUSSIA'S  HOLD  OX  CHINESE  TERRITORY 

a  watchful  eye  from  the  powers,  accompanied  by  various 
marks  of  disapprobation.  But  it  was  left  to  Japan  to  carry 
her  hostility  to  the  Russian  operations  to  a  greater  extreme 
and  fairly  to  threaten  war  unless  Russia  should  .comply  with 
her  treaty  obligations  with  China.  In  truth,  Japan  was  far 
more  vitally  concerned  in  the  Russian  occupation  of  Man- 
churia than  any  of  the  more  distant  powers.  In  view  of  the 
steady  and  long-continued  aggressive  movement  of  Russia 
in  Asia,  the  island  empire  felt  concerned  about  its  own  future 
independence.  Russia  was  rapidly  approaching  the  Pacific 
shores  opposite  her  own.  Only  the  helpless  kingdom  of 
Korea  lay  between.  That  once  acquired — and  there  were 
many  signs  that  Russia  proposed  to  acquire  it — the  great 
continental  and  the  small  island  empire  would  stand  face  to 
face,  with  only  a  narrow  ocean  strait  between.  •  In  such  a 
case  the  future  independent  existence  of  Japan  would  be 
seriously  threatened,  and  it  might  follow  Manchuria  and 
Korea  as  a  final  eastward  acquisition  of  the  great  Colossus 
of  the  West. 

This  being  the  case,  Japan,  while  deeply  concerned 
^regarding  the  Russian  occupation  of  Manchuria,  was  still 
more  solicitous  to  preserve  Korea  from  aggressive  opera- 
tions, and  watched  with  hostile  eyes  any  movement  in  the 
direction  of  acquisition  within  the  "hermit  kingdom"  on 
the  part  of  Russia.  Straws,  showing  which  way  the  wind 
was  likely  to  blow,  were  already  in  the  air.  The  first  action 
concerning  Korea  was  one  taken  after  the  war  of  1894-95, 
in  the  form  of  a  treaty  with  Japan  in  which  it  was  agreed 
that  Korea  should  remain  independent  under  the  joint  pro- 
tection of  Russia  and  Japan.  This  was  of  a  reassuring 
nature,  though  in  it  Russia  reserved  the  right  to  construct 
a  telegraph  line  from  the  frontier  to  Seoul,  the  capital,  stipu- 
lating that  Korea  could  acquire  it  when  she  had  the  means. 

In    1897    the  reorganization  of  the   Korean  army  was 


HIS  IMPERIAL  MAJESTY,  MUTSUHITO,  EMPEROR  OF  JAPAN 


Copyrighted,  Purdy 

KOGORO  TAKAHIRA,  JAPANESE  EMBASSADOR 

"In  compliance  with  your  request  of  recent  date,  I  take  pleasure  in  sending  you 
my  photograph  lately  taken. 
Yours  very  truly, 


The  Legation  of  Japan 
Washington." 


RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE  TERRITORY  121 

intrusted  to  Russian  military  officers,  and  in  1899  Korea 
granted  to  a  Russian  business  concern  the  right  to  cut  timber 
from  certain  specified  forest  districts.  Russians  were  also 
authorized  to  catch  whales  off  the  Korean  coast,  and  land 
was  leased  to  the  whalers  for  the  purpose  of  handling  their 
catch.  Unimportant  as  these  concessions  appeared,  that 
concerning  the  cutting  of  timber  led  in  the  summer  of  1903 
to  a  direct  movement  of  aggression,  Russian  troops  being 
sent  across  the  Yalu  River  under  the  pretext  of  protecting 
the  lumbering  interests  in  Korea.  Those  troops  seem  to 
have  been  sent  in  small  detachments  and  under  the  guise  of 
surveyors,  so  as  not  to  attract  special  notice,  but  as  a  whole 
formed  a  body  of  some  strength,  and  one  which  lost  no  time 
in  making  good  its  position  by  the  construction  of  barracks 
and  intrenchments.  The  settlement  thus  made  was  near 
Wiju,  on  the  Yalu  above  its  mouth. 

The  movement  in  Korea  did  not  stop  here.  The  town 
of  Yongampho,  on  the  Korean  side  of  the  Yalu,  and  in  a 
position  to  protect  the  mouth  of  that  river,  was  next  occupied, 
under  the  claim  that  Russia  needed  it  as  a  shipping  port  for 
timber  from  Mount  Heigna.  This  preposterous  claim  was 
met  by  the  Korean  government  with  the  statement  that  the 
timber  rights  granted  did  not  reach  that  mountain,  and 
with  the  protest  that  Yongampho  had  been  occupied  without 
sanction  on  the  part  of  Korea.  This  protest,  however,  did 
not  affect  the  action  of  Russia,  which  also  made  the  further 
claim  that  the  timber  concession  carried  with  it  the  right  to 
build  telegraph  lines  and  railroads  in  aid  of  the  lumbering 
business,  and  also  to  appropriate  land  for  homes  for  the 
workmen. 

The  protest  of  Korea  against  these  movements  on  the 
part  of  Russia  was  joined  in  by  Japan,  and  with  such  vigor 
that  war  seemed  the  only  alternative  to  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Russians.  At  the  same  time  Japan  showed  a  similar 


122  RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE  TERRITORY 

tendency  to  obtain  a  foothold  on  Korean  soil,  demanding 
the  same  rights  there  as  Russia  enjoyed  in  Manchuria.  One 
step  made  by  Japan  in  this  movement  was  the  building  of  a 
short  railway  line  from  Chemulpo  on  the  coast  to  Seoul  in 
the  interior,  while  a  much  longer  line  from  Fusan  northward 
to  Seoul  was  rapidly  under  way.  Such  was  the  state  of 
affairs  at  the  close  of  1903.  They  were  to  be  followed  in 
1904  by  more  evident  signs  of  hostility,  and  by  negotiations 
between  Russia  and  Japan,  with  the  threat  of  war  in  the 
background  in  case  of  the  failure  of  diplomatic  measures. 

A  brief  statement  of  the  character  of  these  negotiations 
will  fitly  conclude  this  portion  of  our  work.  In  the  transfer 
of  diplomatic  notes  between  the  two  parties,  Russia  proposed 
a  compromise  to  the  effect  that  the  influence  of  Japan  should 
be  paramount  in  the  southern  portion  of  Korea,  while  the 
Czar's  empire-builders  should  have  practically  a  free  hand 
to  the  northward  of  a  neutral  zone  that  Russia  proposed  to 
draw  across  the  country.  This  would  have  given  Russia 
full  control  of  the  Yalu  River,  the  boundary  between  Korea 
and  Manchuria,  and  would  also  have  meant,  in  effect,  the 
Russianization  of  the  adjacent  northern  part  of  Korea,  thus 
virtually  extending  the  southern  tip  of  Siberia  in  such  a  way 
as  to  give  Russia  a  continuous  land  connection  from  Vladi- 
vostok to  Port  Arthur.  Russia  further  insisted  upon  the 
guarantee  of  free  and  unobstructed  navigation  through  the 
channels  of  the  Korean  Strait,  which  lies  between  Korea  and 
Japan.  Further,  admitting  certain  trading  rights  in  Man- 
churia, Russia  refused  to  discuss  with  Japan  the  political 
future  of  that  nominally  Chinese  province.  The  Japanese, 
on  the  other  hand,  felt  that  any  such  arrangement  would 
give  them  only  temporary  security  in  southern  Korea,  while 
making  certain  the  outright  annexation  of  Manchuria  by 
Russia  in  the  near  future,  and  also  probably  the  annexation 
of  the  Yalu  or  northern  portion  of  Korea.  They  further  con- 


RUSSIA'S  HOLD  ON  CHINESE  TERRITORY  123 

sidered  that  such  an  arrangement  would  make  certain  the 
complete  dominance  of  Russia  at  Peking  and  the  ultimate 
Russianization  of  at  least  the  northern  part  of  China  proper, 
together  with  Mongolia.  In  short,  the  great  stake  for  which 
the  Japanese  held  they  were  contending  was  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  Chinese  Empire,  and  the  maintenance  and  integrity 
o£  Korea  as  an  Oriental  state  nominally  independent  but 
practically  under  Japanese  influence  and  guardianship.  It 
was  believed  by  the  Japanese,  in  view  of  their  own  remarkable 
modern  history,  that  if  Russian  encroachments  could  only  be 
resisted  during  this  present  period  of  China's  helplessness 
and  Korea's  pitiable  feebleness,  the  time  would  certainly 
come  when  the  latent  strength  of  China  would  be  developed 
and  organized,  so  that  in  cooperation  or  in  alliance  with  Japan 
the  Far  Eastern  powers  could  protect  themselves  against  the 
Russian  advance.  Meanwhile,  they  asked  China  to  appear 
neutral. 

Such  was  the  character  of  the  negotiations  which  were 
brought  to  a  sudden  end  by  the  breaking  off  of  diplomatic 
relations  with  Russia  and  the  destructive  attack  on  the 
Russian  fleet  at  Port  Arthur  in  early  February,  1904. 


CHAPTER  XL 

The  Terrible  Russian  Exile  System 

The   Dark   Side  of  Russian  Criminal  Life — How  This  System  Has  Grown — The 
Island  Home  of  Criminals — Its  Nearness  to  Japan — Effect  of  the  War  on 

the  Exiles. 

TO  many  people  the  coming  of  the  war  between  Russia 
and  Japan  seemed  to  bring  a  hope  that  there  would 
be  a  way  to  strike  a  blow  at  the  Russian  exile  system 
and  the  release  of  the  political  prisoners.  Too  many 
had  judged  incorrectly  of  the  merits  of  this  system  and 
had  been  too  eager  to  condemn  it  as  inhuman  and  entirely 
unjustified.  An  account  of  the  situation  of  the  exiles  at  the 
opening  of  hostilities  is  interesting  to  all  the  world,  and  may 
be  told  here.  If  successful  in  her  attacks  on  Russia,  Japan 
would  be  able  to  land  troops  on  the  convict  island  of  Sag- 
halien,  just  north  of  the  Japanese  archipelago,  and  release  the 
forty  thousand  men  and  women  imprisoned  there.  Once 
free,  the  murderers,  traitors,  nihilists  and  revolutionists  who 
compose  its  population  would  be  able  at  last  to  avenge  them- 
selves to  some  small  degree  upon  the  government  which  has 
doomed  them  to  a  living  death.  Would  Japan  dare  do  this? 
The  convict  island  is  situated  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
Japan  Sea,  like  the  keystone  of  an  arch.  Southwest  is  the 
Asiatic  coast  of  the  Russian- Siberian  province  of  Amur  and 
the  seaport  of  Vladivostok.  Southeast,  across  a  narrow  strait, 
lies  the  Japanese  island  of  Yesso.  Although  six  hundred 
miles  long,  Saghalien  is  so  narrow  that  it  has  the  shape  of  a 
pickerel  on  the  map.  In  area  it  is  equal  to  the  State  of  South 
Carolina;  in  climate  it  may  be  likened  to  southern  Green- 
land or  northern  Norway.  If  dug  up  and  laid  down  on  the 
124 


THE  TERRIBLE  RUSSIAN  EXILE  SYSTEM  125 

Atlantic  Coast,  between  the  same  parallels  of  latitude,  it 
would  stretch  from  Bangor,  Me.,  to  central  Labrador. 

To  this  cold,  inhospitable,  remote  part  of  the  earth 
Russia  banishes  her  worst  enemies  of  state.  When  a  peasant 
commits  an  atrocious  murder  the  penalty  is  Saghalien.  When 
a  bank  teller  embezzles  a  fortune  he  is  doomed  to  exile  in 
Saghalien.  Should  some  high  official  prove  a  traitor  to  his 
.  government  he  exchanges  his  splendid  St.  Petersburg  draw- 
ing-rooms for  the  log  huts  of  Saghalien. 

There  was  a  secret  military  conference  between  Russia 
and  France  not  long  before  hostilities  began,  when  the  two 
powers  agreed  on  a  mode  of  attack  on  Germany  should  either 
nation  go  to  war  with  the  Kaiser.  Not  long  afterward  it 
was  discovered  that  Germany  by  some  mysterious  means 
had  learned  the  stratagem.  Colonel  Grimm,  a  trusted  Rus- 
sian officer,  was  suspected  of  treachery,  and  in  the  face  of 
indisputable  evidence  he  confessed  himself  a  traitor.  It  was 
estimated  that  the  changes  in  fortifications  made  necessary 
by  his  treachery  cost  the  Russian  government  $5,500,000. 
Yet  he  was  not  hanged  or  shot.  His  fate  was  worse.  He 
was  banished  to  Saghalien. 

Since  Russia  has  completed  the  continental  railroad 
across  her  Asiatic  domain  she  has  sought  to  change  the  char- 
acter of  Siberia  from  a  penal  colony  to  a  great  industrial  prov- 
ince. She  has  endeavored  to  wipe  out  the  wretched  asso- 
ciations which  haunt  the  name  of  Siberia  because  of  its  past, 
and  which  stunted  its  growth.  As  long  as  Russia  continued 
to  found  penal  settlements  within  this  region,  to  which  were 
condemned  murderers  as  well  as  refined  -  men  and  women 
banished  thither  because  of  their  political  views,  voluntary 
immigration  into  Siberia  from  the  congested  parts  of  Russia 
amounted  to  little  or  nothing.  For  the  reason  that  the  con- 
vict settlements  were  adjacent  to  towns,  a  Russian  citizen 
of  good  standing  had  no  desire  to  emigrate  to  such  a  com- 


126  THE  TERRIBLE  RUSSIAN  EXILE  SYSTEM 

munity,  where  his  family  must  needs  associate  with  the  out- 
casts of  society. 

Accordingly,  Russia  in  recent  years  has  been  sending 
her  chief  offenders  to  the  far  distant  island  of  Saghalien. 
The  war,  however,  put  a  stop  to  the  further  deportation  of 
,  convicts  to  the  island.  If  Russia  were  to  attempt  to  send 
her  convicts  by  ship,  as  was  once  her  custom,  from  the  Black 
Sea  port  of  Odessa,  the  Japanese  warships  would  hold  them 
up  somewhere  along  the  Pacific  Coast.  If  she  sent  them  by 
railroad  to  Vladivostok,  the  Mikado's  ships  were  there  to 
capture  them  after  they  had  been  put  on  board  ships  for 
the  island. 

Russia  began  sending  exiles  to  Siberia  in  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  instead  of  branding  them  with  hot 
irons,  impaling  them  on  hooks,  cutting  out  their  tongues  or 
amputating  their  limbs,  as  she  had  done  before.  In  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Muscovites  abolished 
capital  punishment,  and,  instead  of  executing  their  worst 
criminals,  they  banished  them  to  Asiatic  Russia.  They 
populated  vast  tracts  with  sparsely  scattered  colonies  of  con- 
victs. Between  the  years  1823  and  1887  nearly  eight  hun- 
dred thousand  men  and  women  were  torn  from  their  homes 
in  Europe  and  driven  to  far-away  Siberian  settlements. 

In  the  days  before  the  Siberian  railroad  the  exiles  were 
, marched  on  foot  with  an  escort  of  soldiers.  They  were  first 
transported  to  Tyumen,  seventeen  hundred  miles  east  of  St. 
Petersburg,  where  they  were  herded  together  in  pens,  to  be 
forwarded  to  various  destinations. 

On  visiting  the  convict  pens  of  Tyumen,  in  1885,  George 
Kennan  wrote,  in  The  Century  Magazine: 

"There  was  practically  no  ventilation,  and  the  air  was 
so  poisoned  and  foul  that  I  could  hardly  force  myself  to 
breathe  it.  We  visited  successively  in  the  yard  six  'kame- 
ras,'  or  cells,  essentially  like  the  first,  and  found  in  every  one 


THE  TERRIBLE  RUSSIAN  EXILE  SYSTEM  127 

of  them  three  or  four  times  the  number  of  prisoners  for  which 
it  was  intended,  and  five  or  six  times  the  number  for  which 
it  had  adequate  air  space.  In  most  of  the  cells  there  was 
not  room  enough  on  the  sleeping  platforms  for  all  of  the 
convicts,  and  scores  of  men  slept  every  night  on  the  foul, 
muddy  floors  under  the  'nari' — sleeping  platform — and  in  the 
gangway  between  it  and  the  walls.  Three  or  four  pale, 
dejected  and  apparently  sick  prisoners  crawled  from  under 
the  sleeping  platform  in  one  of  the  cells  as  we  entered. 

"In  one  of  the  cells  were  eight  or  ten  'dvaryane,'  or 
nobles,  who  seemed  to  be  educated  men,  and  in  whose  pres- 
ence the  warden  removed  his  hat.  Whether  any  of  them 
were  '  politicals '  or  not  I  do  not  know,  but  in  this  part  of  the 
prison  the  'politicals'  were  usually  confined.  The  air  in  the 
corridors  and  cells,  particularly  in  the  second  story,  was 
indescribably  and  unimaginably  foul.  Every  cubic  foot  of 
it  had  apparently  been  respired  over  and  over  again  until 
it  hardly  contained  an  atom  of  oxygen;  it  was  laden  with 
fever  germs  from  the  un ventilated  hospital  wards,  fetid  odors 
from  diseased  human  lungs  and  unclean  human  bodies,  and 
the  stench  arising  from  unemptied  buckets  at  the  ends  of  the 
corridors.  I  breathed  as  little  as  I  possibly  could,  but  every 
respiration  seemed  to  pollute  me  to  the  very  soul,  and  I 
became  faint  from  nausea  and  lack  of  oxygen.  It  was  like 
trying  to  breathe  in  an  underground  hospital  drain." 

There  are  still  prisons  at  Tomsk,  Irkutsk,  in  central 
Siberia,  and  at  Khabarovsk,  in  eastern  Siberia,  on  the  Amur 
River,  but  they  are  used  for  the  temporary  detention  of 
prisoners.  Exiles  condemned  to  long  periods  of  banishment 
are  sent  to  remote  Saghalien,  where  they  are  confined  in  the 
great  prison  at  Korsakoff  for  two  years  or  put  to  work  in  the 
coal  mines,  chained  to  iron  wheelbarrows.  Those  who  have  not 
been  doomed  to  banishment  for  life  may  obtain  a  parole  on 
good  behavior  and  be  permitted  to  make  their  homes  in  Siberia. 


i28  THE  TERRIBLE  RUSSIAN  EXILE  SYSTEM 

Saghalien  has  been  a  sealed  book  of  crime  and  wretched- 
ness to  the  rest  of  the  world,  save  for  a  few  travelers  who 
have  landed  on  its  frigid  shore.  Dr.  Benjamin  Howard 
visited  the  island  not  long  ago,  and  he  tells  how  the  prisoners 
are  confined  within  a  sort  of  stockade,  similar  to  some  of  the 
American  prisons  in  which  Union  soldiers  were  confined 
during  the  Civil  War.  Within  this  wooden  wall  stand  the  long, 
low,  prison  buildings,  in  which  the  convicts  work  and  sleep. 
For  the  reason  that  an  exile  during  his  two-year  term  of 
imprisonment  is  compelled  to  wear  leg-irons,  with  a  five- 
pound  ball  tugging  at  each  foot,  he  is  allowed  a  greater 
amount  of  freedom  than  the  inmate  of  a  New  York  State 
prison.  Dr.  Howard  said  in  an  address  to  the  American 
Geographical  Society : 

"  In  all  that  large  prison  there  were  only  three  cells, 
all  of  which  were  large  rooms.  The  prisoners  do  practically 
what  they  like  in  prison.  They  smoke,  and  go  out  in  gangs 
to  work.  The  three  cells  I  saw  were  occupied  by  the  most 
distinguished  prisoners,  and  it  is  considered  a  sort  of  a  special 
favor  to  occupy  them.  Two  were  occupied  by  princes,  and 
were  fitted  up  about  as  well  as  the  quarters  of  an  ordinary 
captain.  In  and  about  the  church  on  Sunday  mornings 
there  are  groups  of  the  free.  No  prisoner  is  allowed  to  go 
there.  In  the  Greek  Church  a  great  deal  of  the  service  is 
done  by  laymen.  The  layman  in  this  case,  a  capital 
reader,  was  a  murderer.  The  choir,  also  splendid  singers, 
were  murderers.  But  I  asked  myself,  Is  it  not  better  that 
all  these  convicts  should  be  worshiping  together  than  that 
they  should  have  been  hanged?" 

One  of  the  chief  modes  of  torture  which  the  Russians 
used  in  the  darkest  days  of  the  Siberian  prison  system  was 
the  knout.  Whenever  an  exile  aroused  the  special  ire  of 
his  keeper,  he  was  lashed  with  the  knout.  When  a  man 
refused  to  confe'ss,  the  knout  extorted  his  secret.  No  will 


THE  TERRIBLE  RUSSIAN  EXILE  SYSTEM  129 

was  so  strong  that  .one  could  endure  its  cutting  blows.  In 
Russia  and  Siberia  the  knout  has  been  officially  abolished, 
but  in  Saghalien  it  is  still  used  in  administering  torture,  and 
sometimes  death. 

Few  outside  of  certain  prison  officials  ever  behold  a  con- 
vict punished  by  the  knout,  yet  when  Dr.  Howard  was  at 
Saghalien  he  witnessed  a  man  put  to  its  torture,  because  the 
resident  physician  was  forced  to  seek  his  assistance  and 
advice  in  handling  the  case.  He  says : 

"  The  criminal  was  stretched  out  on  a  table  in  the  middle 
of  the  yard,  and  behind  him  stood  the  executioner.  To  the 
right  of  the  table,  and  at  a  good  distance,  was  the  man  who 
kept  the  tally  and  counted  aloud  each  blow  as  it  fell — one, 
two,  three,  and  so  to  the  end. 

"  I  have  never  seen  anything  else  which  was  so  painful 
to  witness.  The  knout  has  a  large,  thick  handle,  the  strands 
of  the  whip  are  divided  into  three  by  knots,  and  with  a  hard 
end,  and  the  scourge  descends  like  a  bird  of  prey  and  picks 
out  the  flesh. 

"As  soon  as  it  was  over,  and  the  man  was  found  to  be 
alive,  he  was  taken  to  the  hospital,  and  the  doctor,  who 
was  one  of  the  best  of  men,  cared  for  him  just  as  much  as  if 
he  had  been  a  sick  woman  in  New  York. ' ' 

One  of  the  most  horrible  Russian  prison  scenes,  accord- 
ing to  escaped  or  liberated  exiles,  is  the  spectacle  of  the  con- 
victs taking  a  bath.  It  has  long  been  the  rule  to  compel  the 
prisoners  to  wash,  the  day  before  Christmas.  However  thick 
may  be  the  dirt  on  their  bodies  the  rest  of  the  year,  they 
must  try  to  scrape  some  of  it  off  at  this  time,  in  the  name  of 
the  Church.  In  the  story  of  his  exile,  called  "Buried  Alive," 
Dostoevsky  tells  of  a  bathing  scene,  which  affords  a  striking 
contrast  to  that  of  Jersey  shore  summer  resorts.  He  says: 

"There  were  only  two  public  baths  in  the  town.  One 
was  kept  by  a  Jew,  and  had  separate  rooms  which  cost  fifty 


i3o  THE  TERRIBLE  RUSSIAN  EXILE  SYSTEM 

kopecks  each,  and  was  frequented  by  the  higher  classes.  The 
other  bath  was  patronized  by  the  poor  people.  It  was  very 
small,  could  hold  only  a  few  bathers  at  a  time,  and  was 
remarkable  for  its  dirt.  We  were  taken  there  as  a  matter  of 
course.  It  was  a  bright,  sunny  day,  and  the  convicts  were  as 
happy  as  children.  Soldiers  with  loaded  guns  accompanied  us 

"When  PetrofT  opened  the  door  of  the  bathroom  my 
first  thought  was  that  I  must  have  got  into  hell  by  mistake. 
Into  a  room  not  more  than  twelve  feet  long  by  as  many 
broad  a  mass  of  human  beings  were  crowded. 

"A  thick  cloud  of  vapor  hung  over  the  bathers,  nearly 
enveloping  them,  and  the  floor  was  so  filthy  that  I  did  not 
know  where  to  set  my  foot.  When  at  last  we  got  to  the  wall 
where  a  bench  was,  we  found  that  every  available  place  on 
the  forms  had  already  been  taken.  PetrofT  explained  to  me 
that  we  must  buy  a  place.  PetrofT  had  prudently  carried  a 
coin  in  his  fist  all  the  way.  He  handed  it  over  to  the  man. 
who  immediately  disappeared  under  the  bench,  just  below 
my  seat,  where  the  mud  was  about  two  inches  deep. 

"  Few  really  washed  themselves,  as  the  common  people 
care  but  little  for  soap  and  hot  water,  their  idea  of  a  bath 
consisting  of  getting  up  to  the  highest  shelf,  whipping  them- 
selves violently  with  a  bundle  of  birch  twigs,  and  then 
pouring  cold  water  down  their  backs.  And  all  this  mass 
of  human  beings  was  swaying  backward  and  forward,  shout- 
ing and  yelling,  and  clanking  their  chains  on  the  floor.  A 
crowd  had  collected  around  the  window,  where  the  cans  of 
hot  water  were  handed  in  and  carried  over  the  heads  of  the 
bathers,  who  squatted  on  the  floor. 

"  Over  all  this  bedlam  roared  the  voice  of  Issai  Fomitch, 
who  had  climbed  on  to  the  highest  shelf.  He  was  nearly 
beside  himself  with  the  heat  and  whipping,  but  it  seemed  as 
if  no  earthly  heat  could  ever  satisfy  him.  He  hired  a  man 
for  a  kopeck  to  whip  him,  but  the  latter  soon  found  the  heat 


THE  TERRIBLE  RUSSIAN  EXILE  SYSTEM  i31 

too  much  for  him,  threw  down  the  rod  and  ran  away.  Issai 
Fomitch,  nothing  loath,  hired  another,  then  a  third — he 
could  be  generous  at  times — and  had  as  many  as  five  men 
whip  him  that  day." 

After  the  convicts  serve  two  years  in  the  prisons  of 
Saghalien,  or  in  the  coal  mines,  they  are  allowed  to  make 
tljeir  home  in  some  penal  settlement  on  the  island.  To  each 
pfi'e  is  given  a  parcel  of  land,  and  tools  to  build  a  house. 
The  exile  clears  away  a  bit  of  the  primeval  forest,  and  with 
the  trunks  of  the  trees  he  constructs  a  log  hut,  with  walls  a 
foot  or  more  thick,  to  withstand  the  arctic  winds  of  winter. 
If  he  has  made  a  good  record,  the  government  gives  him  a 
horse,  some  chickens,  seed  for  planting,  and  a  wife.  Women 
comprise  about  one-fourth  the  population  of  the  island. 
When  a  man  wants  to  marry  and  is  regarded  as  eligible,  he 
is  taken  to  the  women's  quarters  and  permitted  to  look  at 
the  inmates,  ranged  up  in  the  long  line  for  his  inspection. 
After  a  few  whispers  he  makes  his  choice.  He  may  have 
killed  his  wife  in  Russia  and  she  her  husband,  yet  the  two 
vow  to  take  each  other  for  better  or  for  worse.  Many  of  the 
women  on  the  island  go  there  voluntarily,  because  their  hus- 
bands have  been  condemned  to  its  prisons.  In  her  love 
for  him  such  a  wife  will  live  with  women  committed  there 
for  the  most  heinous  crimes,  haul  water  wagons,  harnessed 
like  horses,  or  scrub  the  floors  of  the  officers'  quarters.  In 
one  year  5,536  out  of  the  15,766  women  exiled  from  Russia 
went  voluntarily. 

A  striking  illustration  which  shows  how  women  of  high 
and  low  standards  of  refinement  are  made  to  associate  in 
their  life  of  exile  is  afforded  by  the  visit  of  Stephen  Bonsai 
to  the  temporary  prison  at  Khabarovsk,  on  the  Amur  River, 
at  the  mouth  of  which  lies  Saghalien.  He  writes  in  Harper's 
Magazine: 

"On  the  second  floor  was  the  jail  for  women.     None  of 


i3 2  THE  TERRIBLE  RUSSIAN  EXILE  SYSTEM 

the  women  were  in  chains,  and  they  occupied  large  and 
sunny  rooms,  never  more  than  two  in  a  room.  Several  had 
their  children  with  them.  In  one  room  we  stopped  and 
talked  with  two  women  who  were  as  unlike  as  day  is  to 
night. 

"One  was  a  great,  handsome  blonde  girl  from  Russia. 
She  might  well  have  served  the  sculptor  as  a  model  for  Diana. 
Her  face  was  goodness  itself ;  her  eyes  were  soft,  ingenuous  and 
almost  childlike.  She  had  poisoned  her  husband  for  love 
of  another  man.  Across  the  sunlit  room  there  stood  her 
sister  in  crime;  but  what  a  contrast  in  outward  appearance! 
vShe  was  a  Goldie  woman,  and  she,  too,  had  poisoned  her 
husband  for  love  of  another  man.  Her  face  was  yellow  and 
sallow,  her  forehead  low  and  receding;  her  nose  was  flat,  and 
her  lips  drooped  and  curled  like  a  deerhound's;  her  face  was 
without  expression,  dull  and  stagnant,  like  a  muddy  pool." 

At  home  the  Russian  peasant  shows  the  effects  of  serf- 
dom and  his  inborn  instinct  to  be  governed  by  always  electing 
an  overseer  to  boss  him.  If  four  laborers  are  told  to  dig 
a  ditch,  they  immediately  choose  one  of  their  number  to  give 
them  orders.  So  in  their  prison  life.  Russians  seem  to 
prefer  supervision  rather  than  individual  liberty.  The 
inmates  of  a  prison  divide  themselves  into  groups  of  ten, 
each  of  which  elects  a  captain  to  govern  them.  Says  Mr. 
Bonsai : 

'The  captain  becomes  responsible  in  the  eyes  of  the 
prison  authorities  for  the  nine  men  who  have  honored  him 
with  their  votes.  Whenever  a  detachment  of  ten  is  respon- 
sible for  some  infringement  of  prison  rules,  and  the  individual 
delinquent  cannot  be  ascertained,  the  captain,  or  starosta, 
receives  the  punishment.  This  system,  it  is  said,  works  well, 
and  makes  for  law  and  order." 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Commodore  Perry  and  the  Opening 

of  Japan 

. 

Commodore  Perry  in  the  Bay  of  Yedo — The  Letter  of  the  President — Early  His- 
tory of  Japan — Rise  of  the  Feudal  System — Decline  of  the  Emperor's  Power 
— The  Shogun  Rules — The  Coming  of  the  Europeans — St.  Francis  Xavier — 
Spread  of  Christianity — Persecution  of  the  Christians — Foreigners  Forbidden 
to  Enter  Japan — The  Dutch  at  Nagasaki — Pressure  of  the  Nations — Rus- 
sians Seek  Intercourse — Perry's  Mission — The  American  Demand — The 
Shogun  Consents  to  Receive  the  Letter — The  Ceremony  of  Reception — Perry 
Goes  and  Returns — The  American  Presents — The  Shogun's  Answer — New 
Ports  Open  to  American  Trade — Privileges  to  Other  Nations — The  New  Birth 
of  Japan. 

ON  the  8th  of  July,  1853,  took  place  one  of  the  most 
important  events  in  the  history  of  Japan.  A  squadron 
of  war  vessels,  more  imposing  in  their  great  hulls 
and  swelling  sails  than  Japanese  eyes  had  ever  gazed 
upon,  appeared  off  Cape  Idsu,  the  outer  extremity  of  the 
Bay  of  Yedo,  bound  inward  before  a  fresh  breeze,  in  bold 
disregard  of  the  lines  of  prohibition  which  Japan  had  for 
centuries  drawn  across  the  entrance  to  all  her  ports.  It  was 
an  American  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Commodore 
Matthew  C.  Perry,  who  bore  a  letter  from  the  President  of 
the  United  States  to  the  Emperor  of  Japan,  suggesting  that 
commercial  relations  should  be  established  between  the  two 
countries,  American  vessels  be  supplied  with  coal  and  pro- 
visions, and  shipwrecked  sailors  be  kindly  treated  and 
promptly  restored  to  their  countries.  This  letter,  splendidly 
engrossed,  was  inclosed  in  a  golden  box  of  the  value  of  a 
thousand  dollars,  and  was  accompanied  by  numerous  presents 
from  the  President  to  the  Emperor.  The  squadron  consisted 

133 


i34       COMMODORE  PERRY  AND  OPENING  OF  JAPAN 

of  the  steam  frigates  Susquehanna  and  Mississippi,  and  the 
sloops  of  war  Plymouth  and  Saratoga,  being  the  most  imposing 
armament  that  had  ever  entered  a  Japanese  port. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  think  that  there  was 
nothing  especially  notable  in  this,  we  must  briefly  outline 
the  preceding  history  of  Japan,  in  order  that  it  may  be  seen 
how  significant  an  event  it  really  was.  The  detailed  histor} 
of  the  island  empire  is  full  of  gallant  deeds  of  war  and  of  the 
exploits  of  ambitious  heroes,  and  also  of  important  political 
changes;  but  at  this  we  can  merely  give  a  passing  glance,  in 
order  to  show  the  great  importance  of  Commodore  Perry's 
visit  and  properly  introduce  to  our  readers  the  advent  of 
Japan  as  a  modern  nation. 

The  history  of  Japan  reaches  back  into  the  mythical 
ages,  but  the  Japanese  begin  their  history  with  the  year  660 
B.  C.,  when  Jimmu-Tenno,  who  had  alighted  from  heaven 
on  the  island  of  Kiu-Siu,  succeeded  in  bringing  all  Japan  under 
his  rule.  The  many  emperors,  or  Mikados,  who  succeeded 
him  and  the  events  of  their  reigns  may  be  passed  over  with- 
out mention,  all  we  are  here  specially  interested  in  being  the 
decline  of  the  power  of  the  Mikados  and  the  coming  of  Euro- 
peans to  Japan. 

It  may  be  said  that  a  feudal  system  gradually  grew  up 
in  the  country,  and  that  the  great  feudal  nobles-  struggled 
with  each  other  for  power  with  little  regard  to  the  supremacy 
of  the  emperor,  the  dominion  of  these  chiefs  increasing  until, 
in  the  year  1192,  the  warlike  Yoritomo  was  given  the  title 
of  Shogun  and  won  the  controlling  power  in  the  state.  In 
theory  he  was  the  humble  servant  of  the  Mikado.  In  fact 
the  Mikado  had  long  ceased  to  govern,  and  lived  in  luxurious 
retirement,  all  the  respect  shown  him  by  the  Shogun  being 
that  of  mere  ceremony.  Thus  was  established  a  state  of 
affairs  which  continued  for  many  centuries,  and  was  not 
broken  up  until  after  the  visit  of  Commodore  Perry  in  1853. 


COMMODORE  PERRY  AND  OPENING  OF  JAPAN       135 

The  Mikado  was  reverenced  by  the  people  as  the  sacred 
emperor,  the  head  of  the  religious  organization  of  the  land, 
but  all  political  and  governing  power  lay  in  the  hands  of  the 
Shogun. 

The  next  event  with  which  we  are  concerned  is  the  com- 
ing of  the  Christians  to  Japan.  The  first  of  these  were  three 
Portuguese,  who  had  taken  passage  in  a  Chinese  junk  and 
were  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Japan  in  1542.  Later  ether 
Europeans  came,  and  in  1549  the  renowned  Jesuit,  St.  Francis 
Xavier,  landed  at  Kagoshima,  the  capital  of  the  Prince  of 
Satsuma,  and  began  a  successful  career  of  conversion  of  the 
Japanese  to  the  Christian  faith.  When  he  left  the  country 
in  1551,  Christianity  had  made  a  marked  progress.  Not  only 
were  many  of  the  peasantry  converted  to  the  new  faith, 
but  men  of  note,  even  princes,  became  Christians,  and  within 
thirty  years  it  is  said  that  there  were  fully  600,000  Christian 
converts  in  central  and  southern  Japan,  including  many  of 
the  daimios,  or  feudal  nobles.  Later  on  there  were  said 
to  be  over  a  million  native  Christians,  out  of  a  population  of 
eight  or  ten  millions  in  the  section  of  the  land  involved. 

All  might  have  been  well  but  for  the  rivalry  between  the 
Jesuit  and  the  Franciscan  missionaries,  and  the  commercial 
disputes  of  the  Portuguese,  Spanish,  English  and  Dutch 
residents,  who  accused  each  other  of  malevolent  designs  and 
aroused  shrewd  suspicions  of  their  character  and  purposes 
in  the  minds  of  the  Japanese.  There  were  even  reports  set 
afloat  that  the  King  of  Portugal  designed  to  send  troops  to 
follow  the  priests,  and,  with  the  aid  of  the  native  Christians, 
to  overthrow  the  Mikado  and  gain  control  of  the  land.  On 
whatever  this  rumor  was  based,  the  Japanese  in  time  felt 
they  had  good  reason  to  believe  that  such  a  purpose  was 
entertained  by  more  than  one  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe. 

The  result  was  a  very  natural  one.  Hideyoshi,  then  the 
great  military  chief  of  the  land,  issued  an  edict  in  1587,  in 


i36       COMMODORE  PERRY  AND  OPENING  OF  JAPAN 

which  he  ordered  all  missionaries  to  leave  Japan  within 
twenty-four  days.  This  was  not  carried  out  at  that  time, 
but  was  put  in  force  in  1597,  in  consequence  of  the  imprudent 
street-preaching  of  some  Spanish  Franciscans,  which  brought 
on  a  riot  and  an  attack  on  the  Christians.  The  persecution 
of  the  native  Christians,  then  begun,  continued  during  the 
succeeding  forty  years,  by  the  end  of  which  time  Christianity 
was  extirpated  throughout  the  empire.  For  years  the  inhab- 
itants of  Nagasaki,  a  centre  of  conversion,  were  required  to 
trample  on  the  cross  in  the  presence  of  the  authorities,  and 
placards  were  to  be  seen  in  the  streets  as  late  as  1868,  offering 
rewards  for  the  arrest  of  members  of  the  "forbidden,  lying 
and  corrupt  sect." 

Aside  from  the  extirpation  of  Christianity,  there  was 
an  important  political  result  to  the  anti-European  crusade. 
All  foreigners,  whether  missionaries  or  not,  were  forbidden 
entrance  to  Japan,  the  only  exception  to  this  rule  being  a 
right  granted  the  Dutch  to  send  trading  ships  to  the  port  of 
Nagasaki.  Here  the  traders  were  strictly  confined  to  an 
island  in  the  harbor,  subjected  to  degrading  humiliations, 
and  permitted  to  go  on  the  mainland  only  once  a  year,  when 
a  commission  took  presents  to  Yedo  to  the  Shogun,  into 
whose  august  presence  they  had  to  crawl  on  their  hands  and 
knees. 

Thus  Japan  was  locked  up  in  prison-like  seclusion  against 
the  outside  world,  the  Japanese  being  forbidden  to  leave 
their  country  under  any  pretext.  Some  knowledge  of  Euro- 
pean affairs  had  been  gained  during  the  Christian  period, 
but  for  more  than  two  centuries  Japan  stopped  short  in  its 
career  of  progress,  and  remained  as  unprogressive  as  China, 
which  had  long  adopted  a  policy  of  seclusion  almost  as  rigid 
as  that  of  Japan.  Some .  information  as  to  what  was  going 
on  in  the  world  outside  was,  indeed,  obtained  from  the 
Dutch,  and  some  new  industries  were  introduced,  such  as 


COMMODORE  PERRY  AND  OPENING  OF  JAPAN       137 

furnaces  and  windmills  like  those  of  Holland.  Certain  Dutch 
books  also  made  their  way  into  the  land  and  were  translated 
and  published  privately,  in  disregard  of  the  severe  restric- 
tions of  the  governmental  edicts.  Yet  the  drifting  in  of 
Western  ideas  and  methods  was  very  slow  and  slight. 

The  time  came  when  it  was  difficult  to  maintain  this 
state  of  affairs.  With  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  ships  of  the  Western  nations  made  their  way  in  increasing 
numbers  to  the  North  Pacific,  and  food  and  water  were 
occasionally  sought  for  at  the  locked  gates  of  Japan.  These 
were  furnished  only  at  Nagasaki,  a  warning  at  the  same  time 
being  given  to  move  on.  In  some  cases  shipwrecked  Jap- 
anese were  brought  back  in  foreign  vessels,  but  those  who 
brought  them  were  not  welcomed,  since  these  persons  were 
no  longer  regarded  as  Japanese.  Such  wrecked  sailors  as 
sought  safety  on  Japanese  soil  were  held  as  prisoners,  and 
rescued  only  with  great  difficulty.  The  law  was  that  any 
foreigner  who  landed  except  at  Nagasaki  should  be  held  in 
perpetual  imprisonment. 

The  Russians,  through  their  Siberian  posts,  had  become 
near  neighbors  of  the  Japanese,  and  sought  to  open  trade 
with  the  islanders.  Lieutenant  Laxman  landed  at  Hako- 
date in  1793,  bringing  some  shipwrecked  Japanese  and 
seeking  to  establish  commercial  relations.  He  was  treated 
with  courtesy,  but  received  no  answer  to  his  demand,  and 
was  told  that  he  could  take  back  his  Japanese  or  leave  them 
as  he  pleased.  The  Russians  made  a  similar  effort  in  1804, 
but  with  no  better  success,  the  Shogun  saying  that  he  received 
all  the  foreign  goods  he  wanted  from  the  Dutch  and  Chinese. 
A  Russian  count  had  been  sent  as  ambassador,  and,  thinking 
he  had  been  shabbily  treated,  he  sent  back  two  vessels  which 
plundered  a  Japanese  settlement  on  Saghalien  and  carried 
off  some  prisoners,  leaving  a  written  statement  that  this  was 
done  in  revenge  for  the  slights  put  upon  the  Russian  ambas- 


138       COMMODORE  PERRY  AND  OPENING  OF  JAPAN 

sador.  The  Japanese  retaliated  by  seizing  Captain  Golownin, 
a  Russian  officer,  who  landed  on  one  of  the  Kurile  Islands  in 
T  8 1 1 ,  and  holding  him  for  a  year  or  two  in  strict  imprison- 
ment. 

The  United  States  came  late  into  the  field  in  the  effort 
to  force  an  entrance  into  Japan,  but  this  country  was  the 
first  to  take  positive  measures.  In  1846  two  vessels  of  war 
were  sent  to  Japan  under  Commodore  Biddle,  with  the  mission 
of  trying  to  open  a  way  to  friendly  intercourse.  But  they 
were  repelled,  the  Commodore  being  grossly  and  perhaps  inten- 
tionally insulted.  President  Fillmore  was  the  next  to  act 
in  the  matter,  sending  out  the  squadron  under  Commodore 
Perry,  whose  arrival  at  the  Bay  of  Yedo  has  been  mentioned 
in  the  opening  of  this  chapter.  The  results  of  his  visit  were 
of  such  importance  that  a  somewhat  extended  account  of  it 
must  here  be  given. 

Perry's  ships  had  no  sooner  dropped  anchor  in  the  bay 
than  several  guns  were  fired  from  a  neighboring  point  and  a 
number  of  boats  put  off  from  the  shore.  A  dignitary  of  the 
neighboring  town  came  on  board,  but  the  Commodore 
declined  *to  see  him,  saying  that  he  bore  a  message  from  the 
President  of  the  United  States  to  the  Emperor  of  Japan 
which  could  be  delivered  only  to  an  officer  of  high  rank.  He 
also  gave  orders  that  all  guard-boats  must  withdraw,  as  he 
would  not  permit  the  squadron  to  be  put  under  guard.  The 
official  handed  the  ordinary  notifications,  forbidding  all  ships 
to  enter  a  Japanese  port,  to  the  ship's  officers,  but  they 
declined  to  receive  them.  An  hour  later  the  official  came 
back  again,  saying"  that  the  letter  could  not  be  accepted,  and 
that  Nagasaki  was  the  proper  place  for  foreign  ships  to  stop. 
'He  was  given  to  understand  that  if  the  governor  of  the  town 
did  not  accept  the  letter  the  ships  would  go  on  up  the  bay 
to  Yedo  and  deliver  it  to  the  Shogun  directly.  At  this  the 
official  withdrew  in  a  state  of  great  agitation. 


COMMODORE  PERRY  AND  OPENING  OF  JAPAN       139 

During  the  following  night  watch-fires  blazed  along  the 
shore  and  the  watch-boats  kept  on  the  water,  but  left  a  goodly 
distance  between  them  and  the  ships.  The  next  morning 
the  governor  of  the  town  himself  came  on  board  and  was 
received  by  one  of  the  ship's  officers.  After  a. long  parley 
he  offered  to  send  to  Yedo  for  permission  to  receive  the  letter, 
and  was  given  three  days  for  this  purpose. 

During  this  interval  the  Americans  were  not  idle.  They 
sent  surveying  parties  four  miles  up  with  orders  to  sound 
and  examine  the  bay.  The  governor  protested  that  this 
was  against  the  laws  of  Japan.  He  was  told  that  it  was  in 
accordance  with  the  laws  of  America,  and  the  soundings  were 
continued.  On  the  second  day  the  Mississippi  steamed  up 
the  bay  after  the  boats,  an  act  that  doubled  the  app'tation  of 
the  Japanese.  At  the  end  of  the  prescribed  time,  word  came 
that  the  Shogun  would  send  a  high  officer  to  receive  the  letter. 
It  would  not  be  answered  immediately,  but  an  answer  would 
be  duly  returned  through  the  Dutch  or  Chinese.  This  was 
rejected  by  the  Commodore  as  insulting,  and  he  said  that  he 
would  return  himself  for  an  answer,  after  a  proper  interval 
had  elapsed. 

The  reception  of  the  latter  took  place  with  much  ceremony 
two  days  later.  The  Commodore  landed  with  all  formality, 
and,  followed  by  a  large  body  of  officers  and  sailors,  proceeded 
to  the  building  set  aside  for  the  ceremony.  It  was  hung 
with  fine  cloth  stamped  with  the  imperial  symbols,  while 
the  princes  of  Idsu  and  Iwami,  splendidly  attired,  were 
present  as  the  envoys  of  the  Shogun.  The  letter  in  its  golden 
case  was  placed  in  a  large  scarlet-lacquered  box,  brought  to 
receive  it,  and  a  formal  receipt  was  given.  The  reception 
ended  with  the  following  words: 

"  Because  this  place  is  not  designed  to  treat  of  anything 
from  foreigners,  so  neither  can  conference  nor  entertainment 
take  place.  The  letter  being  received,  you  will  leave  here.' 


i4o      COMMODORE  PERRY  AND   OPENING  OF  JAPAN 

"  I  shall  return  again,  probably  in  April  or  May,  for  an 
answer,"  said  the  Commodore. 

"With  all  the  ships?" 

"  Yes,  and  probably  with  more." 

These  were  the  only  words  spoken,  and  the  Commodore 
rose  and  departed  in  the  ceremonious  manner  in  which  he  had 
come.  As  if  to  show  the  Japanese  officials  that  he  did  not 
intend  to  be  ordered  away,  he  proceeded  with  the  Susquehanna 
to  the  point  where  the  Mississippi  lay.  Here  he  dropped 
anchor,  the  spot  becoming  known  as  the  "American  anchor- 
age." The  next  day  he  sent  the  Mississippi  ten  miles  higher 
up,  to  a  point  within  eight  or  ten  miles  of  the  capital,  from 
which  point  a  crowded  mass  of  shipping  could  be  seen  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  city.  Having  thus  shown  his  intention  not 
to  leave  until  ready,  he  ordered  the  vessels  to  set  sail,  and 
the  following  day  the  unwelcome  visitors  had  disappeared. 

News  being  received  soon  after  of  the  death  of  the 
Shogun,  Perry  deferred  his  return  till  the  next  year,  when, 
on  the  1 2th  of  February,  his  ships  again  entered  the  bay. 
He  had  now  a  larger  number  of  vessels,  including  three 
steam  frigates,  four  sloops  of  war,  and  two  store-ships.  They 
went  farther  up  the  bay  than  before,  coming  to  anchor  at 
the  "American  anchorage"  of  the  previous  year. 

A  debate  now  arose  as  to  where  the  reply  should  be 
received.  The  Japanese  wished  the  ships  to  withdraw  to  a 
point  far  down  the  bay.  Perry,  on  the  contrary,  insisted 
on  going  up  the  bay  to  Yedo,  and  sent  his  boats  up  to  sound 
the  channel  to  within  four  miles  of  the  city.  Finally  a-  com- 
promise was  made  to  meet  at  the  village  of  Yokohama,  oppo- 
site where  the  ships  lay  at  anchor.  The  first  reception  took 
place  at  this  point  on  the  8th  of  March.  It  was  a  formal 
affair,  though  light  refreshments  were  offered.  At  an  audi- 
ence held  on  the  i3th  there  was  less  formality  and  the 
American  presents  were  given.  These  consisted  of  agricul- 


COMMODORE  PERRY  AND  OPENING  OF  JAPAN      141 

tural  implements,  rolls  of  cloth,  firearms  and  other  articles. 
The  most  valuable  of  them  were  a  small  locomotive,  tender, 
and  car,  which  were  set  in  motion  on  a  circular  track,  laid 
for  the  purpose.  But  what  most  astonished  and  interested 
the  Japanese  was  a  mile  of  telegraph  wire,  which  was  set  up 
and  operated.  They  took  good  care,  however,  to  conceal 
their  feelings  and  avoid  any  show  of  wonder  or  surprise. 

The  important  feature  in  all  this  ceremonious  affair 
was  the  letter  of  reply  from  the  Shogun  for  Tycoon,  as  the 
Americans  at  that  time  called  him).  This  showed  an  incli- 
nation to  remit  somewhat  the  strictness  of  the  seclusion  of 
Japan,  admitting  that  the  demands  relating  to  shipwrecked 
sailors,  coal,  water,  provisions,  etc.,  were  just.  It  also  agreed 
to  the  opening  of  another  harbor  besides  Nagasaki,  but 
asked  for  five  years'  delay  in  doing  this.  The  Commodore 
answered  that  he  would  not  consent  to  such  a  long  and 
unnecessary  delay,  and  would  not  consent  to  be  put  under 
the  severe  restrictions  placed  on  the  Dutch  and  Chinese. 
He  demanded  the  opening  of  three  harbors,  but  finally  agreed 
to  accept  two,  the  port  of  Simodo  in  Hondo  Island,  and  that 
of  Hakodate  in  Yesso. 

This  demand  was  finally  agreed  to,  and  three  copies  of 
the  important  treaty  were  exchanged.  This  successful  com- 
pletion of  the  negotiation  was  followed  by  an  entertainment 
on  the  fleet  to  the  Japanese  officials,  in  which  they  did  ample 
justice  to  the  American  fare  placed  before  them,  and  seemed 
especially  to  approve  of  the  champagne.  One  of  them 
became  so  hilarious  under  the  influence  of  this  unwonted 
beverage  that  he  embraced  the  Commodore  with  the  warmest 
show  of  affection,  an  infliction  which  Perry  bore  with  good- 
humored  patience. 

Commodore  Perry  had  the  best  of  warrant  for  being 
good-humored  under  the  circumstances,  since  he  had  suc- 
ceeded admirably  in  a  most  difficult  diplomatic  mission. 


1 42      COMMODORE  PERRY  AND  OPENING  OF  JAPAN 

The  very  words  in  the  receipt,  "  in  opposition  to  the  Japanese 
law,"  showed  that  Japan  felt  that  it  was  abandoning  its  old 
policy  of  seclusion,  and  that  the  downfall  of  the  system 
which  had  so  long  prevailed  was  at  hand.  This  was  shown 
at  the  new  treaty  ports,  in  which  the  rigid  rules  which  had 
been  drawn  around  the  Dutch  at  Nagasaki  were  removed, 
American  citizens  being  free  to  go  where  they  pleased  within 
the  town  and  for  several  miles  around  it.  In  fact  Japan — 
even  if  not  yet  quite  aware  of  it  herself — had  thrown  down 
the  high  fence  which  she  had  so  long  dwelt  behind,  and  at 
last  swung  out  into  the  circle  of  modern  nations — a  change 
of  conditions  destined  to  be  of  far  more  service  to  herself 
than  to  any  other  country  with  which  she  might  have  inter- 
course. 

The  other  maritime  nations  were  not  long  in  seeking 
to  avail  themselves  of  the  opening  made  by  the  United 
States.  Before  the  year  was  out  a  British  fleet  visited 
Nagasaki,  and  demanded  and  received  important  commer- 
cial concessions.  It  is  of  interest  in  this  connection  to  know 
that  the  first  foreign  flag  raised  officially  in  Japan  was  the 
Stars  and  Stripes,  hoisted  off  Shimoda  in  1856,  and  that 
Townsend  Harris,  U.  S.  Consul,  who  raised  it,  negotiated 
the  first  treaty  of  commerce  with  Japan,  and  had  the  honor 
of  the  first  audience  of  a  foreign  representative  with  the 
Shogun — then  supposed  to  be  the  emperor. 

In  1858  the  treaties  were  extended,  the  port  of  Yokohama 
—where  the  letter  of  the  Shogun  had  been  received— replacing 
that  of  Shimoda,  and  the  treaty  ports  being  opened  to  British, 
Dutch,  and  French  traders,  as  well  as  to-  American.  It  seems 
evident  that  by/  this  time  the  more  progressive  among  the 
statesmen  of  Japan  had  awakened  to  the  great  superiority 
of  the  new  policy  over  the  old,  and  were  beginning  to  see 
how  seriously  Japan  had  stood  in  her  own  light  by  persisting 
in  her  antiquated  method.  This  was  shown  in  the  freedom 


COMMODORE  PERRY  AND  OPENING  OF  JAPAN       143 

with  which  she  granted  to  the  other  commercial  nations  the 
privileges  given  America,  and  the  fact  that  the  country, 
so  long  a  sealed  book,  was  made  free  to  travelers.  In  short, 
the  long-continued  isolation  of  Japan  was  completely  broken 
down.  A  brief  experience  of  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from 
commerce  and  foreign  intercourse  had  convinced  the  quick- 
witted islanders  of  the  folly  of  their  old  system,  and  their 
country  was  thrown  freely  open  to  all  the  world  had  to  offer 
it  and  to  the  ideas  and  inventions  of  all  mankind. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  Great  Revolution  from  Shogun  to  Mikado 

The  Mikado  a  Figure-head — The  "Foreign  Devils" — The  Regent  Seizes  Power — 
The  Revolution  Begins — The  Daimios  Set  Free — They  Seek  the  Mikado's 
Court — The  Clan  of  Choshiu — Civil  War  Begins — Kioto  Burned  Down — 
The  Choshiu  Victorious — The  Shogun  Dies  and  a  Weak  Man  Succeeds — He 
Resigns  His  Office — A  New  Mikado — The  Shogunate  is  Abolished — Keiki, 
the  Shogun,  Fights  for  Power — He  is  Defeated  and  Flees — The  Mikado's 
Army  Capture  Yedo  and  End  the  War — Feudalism  Falls  With  the  Shogunate 
— The  Daimios  Retire  to  Private  Life — Foreigners  at  Last  Welcomed. 

THE  visit  of  Commodore  Perry  to  Japan  in  1853,  the 
opening  of  the  old  land  to  civilization,  and  the  signing 
of  a  treaty  of  commerce  with  the  United  States  formed 
a  mighty  turning  point  in  the  history  of  that  ancient  empire. 
Through  its  influence  the  old  system  was  revolutionized 
and  the  Mikado  restored  to  the  throne,  after  being  for 
seven  centuries  the  practical  subordinate  of  the  Shogun. 
He  had  vanished  from  sight  for  so  long  a  period  that  the 
people  looked  upon  him  as  a  mysterious  spiritual  dignitary, 
almost  forgetting  that  he  had  once  been  the  supreme  lord 
of  the  land.  Yet  during  these  ages  the  imperial  court  had 
been  kept  up,  with  all  its  machinery  of  prime  minister, 
officials  and  nobles — with  everything,  indeed,  except  author- 
ity. The  dignitaries  of  the  Mikado's  court  ranked,  in  their 
own  conceit  and  their  ancient  titles,  far  above  the  Shogun 
and  daimios,  the  military  leaders,  but  they  were  like  so  many 
actors  on  the  stage,  playing  at  power.  Indeed,  the  Shogun, 
had  he  chosen  to  use  the  power  at  his  command,  might 
easily  have  made  himself  the  supreme  dignitary,  completely 
144 


US 

supplanting  the  Mikado,  but  it  seemed  easier  to  let  the  sleepy 
court  at  Kioto  alone,  leaving  to  the  Mikado  the  shadow  of 
that  power  of  which  the  substance  was  in  the  Shogun 's  hands. 

Yet  in  this  there  was  a  risk.  The  emperor  might  at 
any  time  claim  his  ancestral  authority,  call  the  people  and 
the  army  to  his  aid,  and  break  through  the  web  that  the 
great  spider  of  military  rule  had  woven  about  his  court. 
It  was  possible  that  some  great  event  might  stir  Japan  to  its 
depths  and  bring  about  a  sudden  and  vital  change  in  the 
state  of  affairs.  Such  an  event  came  in  the  visit  of  the 
American  fleet  and  the  signing  of  a  treaty  of  commerce  and 
intercourse  by  the  Tai  Kun,  or  great  sovereign  of  Japan,  as 
the  Shogun  claimed  the  right  to  style  himself. 

Japan  had  been  at  peace  for  more  than  two  centuries 
and  for  as  long  a  time  foreigners  had  been  forbidden  to  set 
foot  on  its  soil.  They  were  looked  upon  as  barbarians,— 
"foreign  devils"  the  islanders  called  them, — the  disturbances 
they  had  brought  about  long  before  were  still  borne  in  mind, 
and  throughout  the  island  empire  the  very  name  of  Christian 
or  foreigner  was  hated  and  contemned. 

The  coming  of  Perry  and  his  fleet,  therefore,  could  not  fail 
to  send  a  deep  stir  of  feeling  throughout  the  land.  During  the 
excitement  to  which  it  gave  rise  the  Shogun  died,  and  the 
vacated  power  was  seized  by  li,  the  regent,  a  man  of  daring 
and  able  character,  who  shrewdly  chose  as  Shogun  a  boy 
twelve  years  old;  imprisoned,  exiled,  or  beheaded  all  who 
opposed  him;  and  was  suspected  of  an  intention  to  depose 
the  Mikado  and  set  up  a  boy  emperor  as  he  had  set  up  a  boy 
Shogun. 

The  acts  of  the  regent  added  greatly  to  the  excitement 
in  Japan.  But  if  it  had  ended  with  those  named,  the  resent- 
ment would  scarcely  have  grown  to  revolution.  It  was  the 
treaty  which  li  signed  with  the  foreigners,  that  brought  on 
revolt.  The  right  he  had  exercised  belonged  only  to  the 


1 46  REVOLUTION  FROM  SHOGUN  TO  MIKADO 

Mikado,  and  he  sought  to  gain  palliation  for  his  act  by  send- 
ing word  to  Kioto  that  the  exigency  of  the  occasion  had 
forced  him  to  take  this  radical  step. 

The  result  was  an  intense  excitement  that  pervaded  all 
Japan,  whose  people  became  divided  into  two  parties,  that 
of  the  Mikado,  which  opposed  the  foreigners,  and  that  of  the 
Shogun,  which  favored  them.  "  Honor  the  Mikado  and 
expel  the  barbarians,"  became  the  watchword  of  the  con- 
servatives, and  in  all  directions  excited  partisans  roamed 
the  land,  vowing  that  they  would  kill  the  regent  and  his  new 
friends,  the  hated  foreigners,  and  that  they  were  ready  to 
die  for  the  true  emperor,  who  had  been  robbed  of  his  rights. 
The  result  of  the  excitement  was  a  sanguinary  one.  li  was 
assassinated.  At  the  moment  when  a  strong  hand  was  most 
needed,  that  of  the  man  who  had  the  daring  to  act  in  an 
emergency  was  removed.  The  feeling  of  bitterness  against 
the  foreigners  grew,  and  with  it  the  sentiment  of  allegiance 
to  the  Shogun  declined.  The  boy  Shogun  whom  li  had  chosen 
was  obliged  by  public  opinion  to  visit  Kioto  and  do  homage 
to  the  Mikado,  an  ancient  ceremony  being  thus  restored 
after  a  lapse  of  two  hundred  and  thirty  years,  during  which 
the  fact  that  it  once  existed  had  almost  been  forgotten. 

A  still  more  vital  act  followed.  The  Mikado,  restored 
to  an  active  realization  of  his  lost  authority,  bade  the  Shogun 
to  appoint  the  Prince  of  Echizen  premier  of  the  empire.  This 
was  done  and  was  followed  by  a  remarkable  step  on  the  part 
of  the  new  premier.  For  over  two  centuries  the  daimios 
had  been  obliged  to  reside  in  Yedo,  a  preventive  measure  to 
hold  them  under  control.  With  a  word  the  premier  abolished 
this  custom,  and  the  feudal  lords  lost  no  time  in  seeking  their 
estates  The  decree  which  had  held  them  so  long  was  broken, 
and  they  made  their  way  in  all  haste  to  their  distant  castles  .y 
It  was  a  step  that  proved  fatal  to  the  glory  of  Yedo  and  the 
power  of  its  sovereign  lord.  In  the  words  of  a  native  chron- 


REVOLUTION  FROM  SHOGUN  TO  MIKADO  147 

icier,  "  the  prestige  of  the  Tokugawa  family,  which  had  endured 
for  three  hundred  years,  which  had  been  as  much  more 
brilliant  than  that  of  Kamakura,  in  the  age  of  Yoritomo,  as 
the  moon  is  more  brilliant  than  the  stars,  which  for  more 
than  two  hundred  and  seventy  years  had  forced  the  daimios 
to  take  their  turn  of  duty  in  Yedo,  and  which  had,  day  and 
night,  eighty  thousand  vassals  at  its  command,  fell  to  ruins 
in  the  space  of  a  single  day." 

This  signal  act,  in  truth,  constituted  a  revolution  in  itself. 
Many  of  the  daimios  and  their  retainers,  freed  from  the 
Shogun's  control,  deserted  the  cause  of  their  liege  lord.  Yedo 
was  deserted  by  them  for  Kioto,  the  city  of  the  Mikado, 
which  became  once  more  populous  and  bustling.  The  new 
adherents  of  the  emperor  aided  their  imperial  master  with 
gold  and  pledged  to  him  their  devotion.  A  campaign  of 
pamphlets  began,  some  writers  claiming  that  the  clans 
owed  allegiance  to  the  Shogun,  others  that  the  Mikado  was 
the  true  and  only  emperor. 

A  warlike  step  in  support  of  the  new  ideas  was  at  length 
taken  in  1863,  by  the  clan  of  Choshiu,  which  rose  in  favor 
of  the  Mikado,  erected  batteries  at  the  seaport  of  Shimonoseki, 
refused  to  disarm  at  the  Shogun's  order,  and  fired  on  foreign 
vessels.  The  latter  act  led  to  a  bombardment,  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  by  the  ships  of  four  foreign  nations.  No  great 
damage  was  done,  but  the  Japanese  gained  their  first  knowl- 
edge of  the  strength  of  the  powers  against  which  they  for 
the  first  time  arrayed  themselves. 

The  men  of  Choshiu,  the  adherents  of  the  Mikado,  now 
urged  him  to  proceed  to  Yamato  and  show  himself  to  his 
people,  thus  demonstrating  that  he  was  ready  to  take  the 
field  in  person  against  the  barbarians.  The  suggestion  was 
received  with  favor,  but  soon  the  state  of  affairs  changed, 
the  Choshiu  envoys  and  their  friends  being  arrested  and  the 
palace  closely  guarded,  while  the  members  and  retainers 


i48  REVOLUTION  FROM  SHOGUN  TO  MIKADO 

of  the  clan  were  forbidden  to  enter  the  capital.  This  order 
placed  them  in  the  position  of  outlaws.  This  action  of  the 
emperor  was  brought  about  by  the  party  of  the  Shogun, 
which  had  made  him  believe  that  the  clan  was  plotting  to  seize 
his  person  and  thus  to  gain  the  control  of  the  empire. 

Civil  war  followed  this  act  of  violence,  the  capital  being 
attacked  in  August,  1864,  by  a  body  of  1,300  men  of  the 
Choshiu  and  other  disaffected  clans.  It  was  defended  by 
the  adherents  of  the  Shogun,  who  had  now  become  the  sup- 
porters of  the  Mikado.  For  two  days  the  battle  raged,  at  the 
end  of  which  time  a  great  part  of  the  city  had  been  reduced 
to  ashes,  the  flames  destroying  some  thirty  thousand  edifices. 
'The  Blossom  Capital  became  a  scorched  desert."  The 
battle  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Choshiu,  but  Kioto  lay  in 
ruins.  A  Japanese  city  is  a  very  fragile  concern,  however: 
easily  destroyed,  but  almost  as  easily  rebuilt. 

The  next  step  in  the  revolution  was  a  march  in  force 
upon  Choshiu  to  punish  its  rebellious  people,  an  expedition 
which  did  not  prove  popular  with  the  Japanese.  Some  pow- 
erful feudal  lords  refusing  to  join  it,  many  of  those  mustered 
into  the  ranks  became  conveniently  sick,  and  those  who 
marched  were  without  heart  for  the  fight.  On  the  other  hand, 
Choshiu  was  well  prepared.  The  men  of  this  clan  had  long 
been  in  contact  with  the  Dutch  and  had  thrown  aside  their 
native  weapons,  drilled  themselves  in  European  tactics  and 
armed  themselves  with  rifles  and  artillery.  As  a  result, 
after  a  three  months'  campaign,  the  invading  army  met  with 
a  complete  defeat  and  the  prestige  of  the  Shogun  received 
a  very  serious  blow.  This  was  added  to  by  the  death,  at 
this  critical  period,  of  the  young  Shogun,  who  had  been  worn 
out  by  intense  anxiety  during  his  stirring  era  of  rule. 

The  last  of  the  Shoguns  now  came  into  power,  Keiki, 
appointed  head  of  the  Tokugawa  family  in  October,  1866, 
and  made  Shogun  in  January,  1867.  He  had  frequently 


REVOLUTION  FROM  SHOGUN  TO  MIKADO  149 

declined  to  accept  this  office,  and  was  far  too  weak  and  fickle 
a  man  to  hold  it  in  such  stormy  times.  His  opposition  to 
the  admission  of  foreigners  made  him  popular  at  court,  but 
he  was  by  no  means  the  man  to  hold  the  reins  of  government 
at  that  perilous  juncture  of  affairs. 

In  fact,  scarcely  had  he  accepted  the  office  when  a  vigor- 
ous pressure  was  brought  upon  him  to  resign,  in  which  a 
number  of  princes  and  powerful  noblemen  took  part.  They 
proposed  to  abolish  the  Shogunate  and  restore  the  ancient 
government  of  the  realm.  Keiki  yielded,  and  in  November, 

1867,  resigned  his  office  of  Sei-i  Tai  Shogun.     During  this 
critical  interval  Komei,  the  Mikado,  died,  and  his  son  Mut- 
suhito  was  raised  to  the  throne. 

But  after  its  many  centuries  of  abrogation  the  imperial 
power  was  not  so  easily  to  be  restored.  The  Aidzu,  the  most 
loyal  of  all  the  clans  to  the  Shogun,  and  the  leaders  in  the 
war  against  the  Choshiu,  held  control  in  Kioto,  guarding  the 
palace  gates,  and  being  for  the  time  masters  of  the  situation. 
The  party  of  the  Mikado,  however,  was  not  idle.  Small 
parties  of  soldiers  sent  by  them  gradually  made  their  way 
into  the  capital,  and  a  quiet  influence  was  brought  to  bear 
on  the  court,  counseling  it  to  take  advantage  of  the  oppor- 
tunity to  boldly  abolish  the  office  of  Shogun,  and  to  declare 
the  young  emperor  the  sole  sovereign  of  the  realm. 

The  coup-d'etat  thus  suggested  was  effected  January  3, 

1868.  On  that  day  the  troops  who  had  entered  the  town 
suddenly  took   possession   of   the   palace   gates,  the  nobles 
around  the  emperor  were  dismissed,  others  favorable  to  the 
movement  taking  their  places,  and  an  edict  was  issued  in 
the  name  of  the  Mikado,  declaring  that  the  office  of  Shoguri 
had  ceased  to  exist,  and  that  the  sole  government  of  the 
empire  lay  in  the  hands  of  the  Mikado  and  his  officers.     New 
posts  were  founded  and  new  officials  chosen  to  fill  them, 
the  clan  of  Choshiu  was  relieved  from  the  ban  of  rebellion 


iSo  REVOLUTION  FROM  SHOGUN  TO  MIKADO 

and  honored  as  the  supporter  of  the  imperial  power,  and  a 
completely  new  government  was  organized. 

Civil  war  again  followed.  The  adherents  of  the  Toku- 
gawa  clan,  in  high  indignation  at  the  revolutionary  act 
which  had  dispossessed  them,  left  the  capital;  Keiki,  who 
had  become  ambitious  to  regain  his  power,  at  their  head. 
On  the  27th  of  February  he  marched  upon  Kioto  with  an 
army  of  indefinite  numbers,  estimates  varying  from  ten 
thousand  to  thirty  thousand  men.  The  two  roads  leading 
to  the  capital  had  been  barricaded,  but  the  defenders  num- 
bered only  two  thousand  men,  though  they  were  armed  with 
artillery. 

A  battle  lasting  for  three  days  followed,  in  which  the 
defenders  of  the  barriers,  greatly  as  they  were  outnumbered, 
won  the  victory;  their  defences  and  artillery,  with  their 
European  discipline,  giving  them  a  great  advantage.  The 
defeated  Shogun  fled  with  his  army  to  Ozaka,  the  castle  of 
which  was  quickly  besieged,  captured  and  burned.  He  then 
took  refuge  on  an  American  vessel  in  the  harbor.  From  there 
he  made  his  way  to  Yedo  in  one  of  his  own  ships,  and  shut 
himself  up  in  his  palace,  now  inclined  to  withdraw  absolutely 
from  the  struggle. 

His  retainers  and  many  of  the  daimios  and  clans  strongly 
urged  him  to  continue  the  war,  and  declared  that,  with  the 
large  army  and  abundant  supplies  at  their  command,  and 
their  powerful  fleet,  they  could  restore  him  to  power.  But 
Keiki  was  weary  of  war,  and  besides  was  troubled  in  soul  at 
the  idea  of  being  a  rebel  against  his  liege  lord.  He  declared 
that  he  would  never  take  up  arms  again  to  battle  with  the 
Mikado,  and  withdrew  from  the  struggle  to  private  life. 

In  the  meantime  the  victorious  forces  of  the  south 
reached  the  suburbs  of  Yedo,  and  threatened  to  apply  the 
torch  to  that  city  unless  it  were  immediately  surrendered. 
When  their  commander  was  advised  of  the  intention  of  the 


REVOLUTION  FROM  SHOGUN  TO  MIKADO  151 

Shogun,  he  agreed  to  spare  the  city,  but  he  assailed  and 
burned  the  magnificent  temple  of  Uyeno,  in  which  those 
still  in  arms  had  taken  refuge.  Despite  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Shogun  the  war  went  on  for  a  year  longer,  victory  every- 
where favoring  the  imperial  army.  By  the  ist  of  July,  1869, 
hostilities  came  to  an  end,  and  the  Mikado  was  everywhere 
acknowledged  as  the  sole  lord  of  the  realm. 

Thus  came  to  an  end  a  military  control  of  Japan  that 
had  lasted  for  seven  hundred  years.  In  1167,  Kiyomori, 
a  powerful  daimio,  had  made  himself  military  ruler  of  the 
empire.  In  1869,  Mutsuhito,  the  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
third  Mikado  in  lineal  descent,  resumed  the  imperial  power 
of  which  his  ancestors  had  so  long  been  deprived.  Unlike 
China,  over  which  so  many  dynasties  have  ruled,  Japan  has 
been  governed  by  a  single  dynasty,  according  to  the  native 
records,  for  more  than  twenty-five  hundred  years — this  being 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  emperors  took  no  part  in  the  govern- 
ment. 

The  fall  of  the  Shogun  was  followed  by  the  suppression 
of  feudalism.  For  the  first  time  for  many  centuries  the 
Emperor  of  Japan  came  from  his  seclusion  and  showed  him- 
self openly  to  his  people.  He  chose  Yedo  for  the  eastern 
capital  of  the  realm,  its  name  being  changed,  according  to 
the  Japanese  custom,  to  Tokio.  Hither,  in  September,  1871, 
the  daimios  were  once  more  summoned,  and  the  order  was 
issued  that  they  should  give  up  their  strongholds,  dismiss 
their  feudal  retainers  and  retire  to  private  life.  Resistance 
would  have  been  in  vain,  and  they  hastened  to  obey.  Thus 
fell  another  ancient  institution,  eight  centuries  old.  The 
revolution  was  at  an  end.  The  Shogunate  and  the  feudal 
system  had  fallen,  to  rise  no  more.  A  single  absolute  lord 
ruled  over  Japan. 

As  regards  the  cry  of  "expel  the  barbarians,"  which  had 
first  given  rise  to  hostilities,  it  gradually  died  away  as  the 


i52  REVOLUTION  FROM  SHOGUN  TO  MIKADO 

revolution  continued.  The  people  had  become  aware  of  the 
strength  of  the  foreign  fleets,  and  also  of  the  advantages  of 
foreign  commerce,  and  the  conception  forced  itself  upon 
them  that,  instead  of  being  barbarians,  these  aliens  held  the 
chief  place  in  civilization  and  had  a  thousand  valuable 
lessons  to  teach.  A  complete  change  of  mind  came  about 
among  the  intelligent  Japanese,  and  in  less  than  twenty 
years  after  the  coming  of  the  Americans,  they  warmly  wel~ 
corned  those  whom  they  had  inveterately  opposed,  and  began 
to  change  their  institutions  to  accord  with  those  of  the 
Western  world. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

Japan  Under  the  Mikado 

The  Mikado's  Promise — Feudalism  Abolished — The  New  Principles  Inaugurated— 
A  Short-lived  Parliament — The  Pension  of  the  Daimios — The  Pariahs  Made 
Citizens — A  New  System  of  Education — Newspapers,  Hospitals,  etc.,  Estab- 
lished— A  New  Code  of  Laws — Christianity  Restored — The  Reforms  Lead  to 
Rebellion,  but  are  Sustained — Local  Assemblies  Formed — The  Franchise 
Given — A  Nobility  Established — The  Mikado's  Cabinet — Railroads,  Tele- 
graphs and  Electric  Lights — The  Roman  Alphabet — The  Constitution  of 
Japan — Japan  and  the  Treaty  Powers — Efforts  at  Revision — The  New  Regu- 
lations— Japan  in  the  Circle  of  the  Great  Civilized  Powers. 

IN  1867,  during  the  height  of  the  struggle  for  the  abolish- 
ment of  the  time-honored  institution  of  the  Shogunate, 
or  military  control  of  the  government  of  Japan,  and 
the  restoration  of  the  Mikado  to  the  power  of  his  ancestors, 
of  which  the  imperial  family  had  for  many  centuries  been 
deprived,  the  Mikado  Komei  died  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Mutsuhito,  the  able  ruler  under  whom  the  recent 
remarkable  progress  of  Japan  in  all  the  elements  of  moderr 
civilization  has  taken  place.  By  July  i,  1869,  every  vestige 
of  rebellion  on  the  part  of  the  supporters  of  the  old  system 
had  ceased  and  the  Mikado's  party  was  triumphant.  The 
trials  of  the  new  government  now  began.  The  Kuge,  or 
court  nobles,  and  the  whole  body  of  samurai,  or  two-sworded 
men,  the  military  adherents  of  the  daimios,  desired  to  drive 
foreigners  out  of  the  country,  but  certain  progressive  states- 
men, who  were  conversant  with  foreign  ideas,  opposed  the 
execution  of  the  plan  and  sent  a  noble  of  the  imperial  court 
to  give  the  Mikado's  consent  to  the  treaties  and  to  invite 
the  foreign  ministers  to  an  audience  with  the  emperor  in 

153 


iS4  JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO 

Kioto.  The  conversion  of  the  court  nobles  to  the  party 
that  desired  to  see  Japan  reconstructed  on  European  prin- 
ciples now  went  on  rapidly,  and  the  young  Mikado  was 
induced  to  appear  in  person  before  the  Council  of  State  and 
to  promise  that  a  deliberative  assembly  should  be  eventually 
formed. 

Indicative  of  an  intention  to  revolutionize  the  mode  of 
government  was  the  emperor's  departure  from  Kioto,  which 
had  been  the  seat  of  his  ancestors  for  twenty-five  centuries, 
and  his  adoption  of  Yedo,  thenceforth  called  Tokio,  for  his 
capital.  To  a  considerable  'extent,  freedom  of  the  press  was 
now  guaranteed,  and  a  number  of  newspapers  sprang  up. 
Books  expounding  European  methods  of  thought  and  educa- 
tion were  published,  and  many  pamphlets  advocating  the 
abolition  of  feudalism  appeared.  Four  of  the  great  daimios, 
or  feudal  lords,  advocated  the  change.  They  addressed  a 
memorial  to  the  throne,  offering  to  restore  the  registers  of 
their  clans  and  proposing  that  the  Mikado  should  resume 
possession  of  their  fiefs. 

In  conformity  to  this  request,  an  edict  was  issued  in 
September,  1871,  summoning  the  daimios  to  Tokio  for  the 
purpose  of  arranging  their  retirement  to  private  life.  With 
scarcely  an  exception,  the  order  was  obeyed ;  even  the  daimios 
who  disapproved  of  the  measure  were  unwilling  to  oppose 
the.  resolute  men  who  had  framed  the  edict.  The  truth  is 
that,  even  under  the  feudal  system,  the  real  power  in  each 
clan  had  lain  in  the  hands  of  able  men  of  inferior  rank  who 
ruled  their  nominal  masters.  These  are  the  men  who,  in  the 
new  dispensation,  came  to  control  Japan;  Having  first 
driven  the  Shogun  into  private  life,  they  then  compelled  the 
daimios  to  follow  him  into  retirement.  Of  the  men  who 
have  taken  a  leading  part  in  the  government  of  the  country 
since  1868,  not  one  is  a  daimio  by  birth,  and  only  two  or 
three  are  Kuge,  or  court  nobles.  Almost  all  have  been 


JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO  155 

simple  samurai,  or  retainers  of  the  territorial  lords.  The 
new  emperor,  shortly  after  taking  control  of  the  government, 
had  declared  in  a  manifesto:  "Henceforward  we  shall  exer- 
cise supreme  authority,  both  in  the  internal  and  the  external 
affairs  of  the  country.  Consequently  the  title  of  Emperor 
should  be  substituted  for  that  of  Tycoon  [Shogun],  which 
has  hitherto  been  employed  in  the  treaties."  Of  this  mani- 
festo, one  writer  says:  "Appended  were  the  seal  of  Dai  Nip- 
pon [Japan],  and  the  signature,  Mutsuhito,  this  being  the 
first  occasion  in  Japanese  history  on  which  the  name  of  an 
emperor  had  appeared  during  his  lifetime." 

The  most  significant  •  action  of  the  emperor  at  this 
period  was  his  promise  to  convoke  a  deliberative  assembly 
or  Congress  of  the  empire,  above  spoken  of.  This  "charter 
oath"  of  Japan  was  in  no  sense  the  result  of  coercion  of  the 
young  emperor  by  the  progressive  statesmen  surrounding 
him,  but  was  a  voluntary  act,  though  doubtless  largely  due 
to  the  counsel  of  Kis  advisers,  who  were  eager  to  bring  Japan 
into  line  with  the  limited  monarchies  of  the  West.  Solemn 
oath  was  taken  by  the  emperor  to  bring  about  this  important 
reform,  together  with  other  essential  changes  in  the  old 
system  of  the  country.  We  append  a  summary  of  this 
highly  important  pledge  of  the  young  ruler.  It  embraces 
the  following  measures: 

"  i.  A  deliberative  assembly  should  be  formed,  and  all 
measures  be  decided  by  public  opinion. 

"2.  The  principles  of  social  and  political  economics 
should  be  diligently  studied  by  both  the  superior  and  the 
inferior  classes  of  our  people. 

"3.  Every  one  in  the  community  shall  be  assisted  to 
persevere  in  carrying  out  his  will  for  all  good  purposes. 

"  4.  All  the  absurd  usages  of  former  times  should  be 
disregarded,  and  the  impartiality  and  justice  displayed  in 
the  workings  of  nature  be  adopted  as  a  basis  of  action. 


i56  JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO 

"5.  Wisdom  and  ability  should  be  sought  after  in  all 
quarters  of  the  world  for  the  purpose  of  firmly  establishing 
the  foundations  of  the  empire." 

The  establishment  of  a  Parliament  was,  however,  slow 
in  coming,  being  preceded  by  the  shadow  of  such  an  assembly 
the  so-called  Kogisho,  formed  of  persons  chosen  by  the  dai- 
mios  and  representing  the  interests  of  their  fiefs.  Its  func- 
tion was  .to  give  advice  to  the  imperial  government,  but  this 
advice  was  of  the  most  conservative  character,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  fact  that  it  refused  to  recommend  the  abolition 
of  the  custom  of  sword-wearing  and  of  harikari,  or  suicide 
by  sword-cuts.  It  was  of  short  life,  lasting  only  a  few  months, 
the  emperor  dissolving  it  in  the  autumn  of  the  year  in  which 
it  came  into  being. 

The  suppression  of  the  feudal  system  put  an  end  to 
the  old  method  of  administration,  that  of  the  Daimiates,  or 
feudal  areas  of  control;  the  establishment  of  prefectures 
succeeding.  The  following  brief  decree  brought  about  this 
radical  change:  "The  clans  are  abolished,  and  prefectures 
are  established  in  their  places."  The  first  prefects  were 
chosen  from  the  class  of  ex-daimios,  or  feudal  princes,  but, 
since  many  of  these  proved  unfit  for  the  work  of  high  admin- 
istration, abler  men  selected  from  the  samurai  class  were 
chosen  to  succeed  them.  The  suppression  of  the  daimios, 
however,  left  the  empire  saddled  with  serious  financial  obli- 
gations, it  being  decreed  that  each  ex-daimio  and  each  of 
his  feudal  inferiors  should  receive  from  the  public  revenue 
one-tenth  of  the  income  they  had  drawn  from  their  fiefs. 
This  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  support  of  their  retainers, 
the  government  engaging  to  pay  the  samurai  for  all  services 
rendered  by  them.  The  burden  thus  assumed  was  provided 
for  by  a  government  loan  of  $165,000,000. 

As  for  the  samurai,  in  place  of  the  pensions  they  had 
formerly  received,  lump  sums  were  given  them.  These  they 


JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO  157 

did  not  take  long  to  squander,  and  much  poverty  and  want 
were  eventually  experienced  by  the  ex-feudal  retainers. 
Among  other  remarkable  events  which  took  place  in  1871. 
should  be  mentioned  the  removal  of  the  ancient  disqualifi- 
cation of  the  eta  and  heimin,  whereby  these  pariah  castes 
were  placed  on  the  same  legal  footing  as  the  rest  of  the  popula- 
tion. They  had  formerly  been  considered  not  human,  and 
were  now  for  the  first  time  classed  among  the  common  people 
of  the  state.  In  the  following  year,  the  first  railway  in  Japan 
was  opened.  This  was  a  line  between  Yokohama  and  Tokio. 
In  1873  the  European  calendar  was  adopted,  so  far  as  the 
beginning  of  the  year  and  the  beginning  of  the  months  are 
concerned.  The  year  is  still  reckoned,  however,  from  Jimmu 
Tenno,  which  is  1873  of  the  Christian  era,  and  corresponds 
to  the  year  2533  of  the  Japanese  era.  Still  employed  occa- 
sionally, also,  is  the  Meiji  year-period,  which  began  in  1868. 

From  the  beginning  of  1872,  the  remodeling  of  the  Jap- 
anese system  of  education  was  undertaken.  In  April  of 
that  year,  the  Mikado,  Mutsuhito,  visited  the  Imperial  Col- 
lege, subsequently  known  as  the  Imperial  University.  The 
new  buildings  consisted  of  three  wings,  each  192  feet  long, 
joined  to  a  main  edifice  324  feet  in  length.  The  students 
in  this  institution  soon  numbered  350,  taught  by  20  foreign 
professors.  The  foreign  language  school,  in  which  pupils 
learned  English  or  some  other  European  language,  prepara- 
tory to  entering  the  college,  presently  had  600  students  and 
20  foreign  teachers.  For  educational  purposes,  the  empire 
was  divided  into  eight  districts,  in  each  of  which  a  university 
was  contemplated,  which  was  to  be  supplied  by  210  secondary 
schools  of  foreign  languages.  It  was  arranged  that  the 
elementary  vernacular  schools  should  number  53,000,  or 
one  for  every  600  persons  in  Japan.  To  these  elementary 
establishments  were  to  be  deputed  native  teachers  trained 
in  normal  schools.  Before  many  years  had  passed,  the 
school  attendance  was  computed  at  three  millions. 


i58  JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO 

During  the  year  1872  two  legations  and  three  consulates 
were  established  abroad.  Before  long,  the  number  was 
increased  to  ten.  The  Japanese  press  quickly  emerged  from 
the  realm  of  experiment  and  became  a  powerful  civilizing 
force.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years,  ten  daily  newspapers 
in  the  capital  and  200  publications  in  the  empire,  equipped 
with  metal  type  and  printing  presses,  began  to  flood  the 
country  with  information  and  awaken  thought. 

In  the  department  of  jurisprudence,  also,  great  progress 
was  made-.  Since  the  restoration  of  the  Mikado  to  actual 
power,  revised  statutes  have  greatly  decreased  the  list  of 
capital  punishments;  the  condition  of  the.  prisons  has  been 
ameliorated;  legal  processes  have  been  improved  from  the 
viewpoint  of  justice,  and  the  use  of  torture  to  obtain  testi- 
mony has  been  entirely  abolished.  Law  schools  were  estab- 
lished, and  to  accused  persons  was  given  the  assistance  of 
counsel  for  their  defence.  By  the  year  1874  there  had  been 
a  great  change  for  the  better  in  the  diet,  clothing,  and  hygienic 
protection  of  the  people.  In  the  year  named,  there  were  in 
the  empire  one  government  hospital  and  twenty-one  hos- 
pitals assisted  by  government  grants,  twenty-nine  private 
hospitals,  5,247  physicians  practicing  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples and  methods  of  Western  science,  and  5,205  apothe- 
caries. In  1875  there  were  325  students  in  the  medical  col- 
leges at  Tokio  and  Nagasaki,  and  some  twenty-five  foreign 
surgeons  and  physicians  in  the  employ  of  the  Japanese  gov- 
ernment. Public  decency  was  improved  and  the  standards 
of  Christendom  approached. 

Religious  persecution  ceased.  All  the  native  Christians 
who  had  been  exiled  or  imprisoned  in  1868-69  were  set  free 
and  restored  to  their  villages.  It  should  here  be  mentioned 
that,  despite  the  efforts  at  extirpation,  Christianity  had  main- 
tained itself  secretly  in  the  empire  during  the  centuries  suc- 
ceeding the  abolishment  of  foreign  intercourse.  We  note, 


JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO  159 

finally,  that  as  early  as  1876  the  fulfillment  of  the  promise 
made  by  the  Mikado  in  1868,  that  "intellect  and  learning 
should  be  sought  for  throughout  the  world,"  had  been  so  far 
fulfilled  that  400  foreigners  from  many  Western  countries  had 
been  invited  to  occupy  posts  in  the  government  civil  service. 

In  1870  there  had  been  not  ten  Protestant  Christians  in 
'the  empire.  By  May,  1876,  there  were  ten  Protestant 
churches,  with  a  membership  of  800  souls.  In  March  of  the 
year  just  named,  Prime  Minister  Sanjo  issued  a  proclamation 
abolishing  the  custom  of  wearing  two  swords.  This  measure, 
which  had  been  first  advocated  by  Arinori  Mori  in  1870,  now 
became  law  throughout  the  land.  It  was  in  August,  1876, 
that  the  commutation  of  the  hereditary  pensions  and  life 
incomes  of  the  sumarai,  which  previously  had  been  optional, 
was  made  compulsory.  This  act  forced  the  privileged  classes 
to  begin  to  earn  their  bread.  In  the  same  month  the  empire 
was  redivided  and  the  68  ken,  or  prefectures,  were  reduced 
in  number  to  35. 

It  was  to  be  expected  that  the  progressive  course  of  the 
Mikado's  ministers  would  excite  some  disaffection,  and  there 
were  during  this  year  some  insurrections  on  the  part  not  only 
of  discontented  samurai,  but  also  of  the  farmers  on  whom 
the  burdens  of  taxation  mainly  fell.  To  redress  the  griev- 
ances of  the  latter  class,  in  January,  1877,  the  national  land 
tax  was  reduced  from  3  to  2^  per  cent.,  while  the  local  tax, 
which  had  formerly  amounted  to  one-third  of  the  land  tax, 
was  cut  down  to  one-fifth.  About  the  same  time  the  salaries 
of  nearly  all  the  government  officers  were  diminished,  several 
thousand  office-holders  were  discharged,  the  Department  of 
Revision  and  the  Prefecture  of  Police  were  abolished,  and 
their  functions  were  transferred  to  the  Home  Department. 
An  annual  saving  of  about  eight  million  dollars  was  thus 
effected,  and  the  loss  to  the  treasury  from  the  curtailment 
of  land  taxation  was  made  good. 


i6o  JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO 

In  1877,  however,  a  great  rebellion  broke  out  in  Sat- 
suma,  instigated  by  Saigo  Takamori,  who  had  been  formerly 
a  marshal  of  the  empire.  After  a  contest  of  some  months, 
the  imperial  authority  was  everywhere  re-established,  and 
Saigo,  at  his  own  request,  was  beheaded  by  one  of  his  friends. 
This  insurrection  represented  the  final  struggle  between  the" 
forces  of  feudalism  and  misrule  against  those  of  order  arid 
unity.  The  contest  cost  Japan  $50,000,000  and  many  thou- 
sands of  lives.  In  the  ultimate  treatment  of  the  rebels  the  gov- 
ernment displayed  a  spirit  of  leniency  worthy  of  an  enlight- 
ened state.  Of  upward  of  38,000  persons  tried  in  Kiushiu, 
only  twenty  were  decapitated,  about  1,800  were  condemned 
to  imprisonment,  and  some  36,000  were  pardoned.  During 
the  same  year,  1877,  the  cholera  broke  out  in  Japan,  but, 
owing  to  the  enforcement  of  sanitary  measures,  there  were 
but  6,297  deaths. 

The  Mikado  had  now  been  governing  Japan  for  ten 
years  by  means  of  an  irresponsible  ministry.  The  oath 
which  he  had  taken  at  Kioto  in  1868  to  form  a  deliberative 
assembly  kad  never  been  fully  carried  out.  We  have  seen 
that  the  Kogisho,  or  advisory  body,  called  into  existence  in 
1868,  had  been  dissolved  in  the  same  year.  Subsequently,  in 
1875,  a  Senate  had  been  established  and  an  assembly  of  the 
ken  governors,  or  prefects,  held  one  session.  The  meetings 
of  the  latter  body,  however,  were  soon  indefinitely  post- 
poned. Nevertheless  the  era  of  personal  government  was 
drawing  to  a  close. 

On  July  22,  1878,  a  long  step  was  taken  toward  repre- 
sentative institutions  by  an  edict  convoking  provincial  par- 
liaments or  local  assemblies  which  were  to  sit  once  a  year 
in  each  ken  or  province.  Under  the  supervision  of  the  Min- 
ister of  the  Interior,  these  bodies  were  empowered  to  discuss 
questions  of  local  taxation,  and  to  petition  the  central  gov- 
ernment on  other  matters  of  local  interest.  Though  the 


J-APAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO  161 

franchise  was  granted  to  the  people,  it  was  limited  by  both 
educational  and  property  qualifications.  Each  voter  had 
to  prove  his  ability  to  read  and  write,  and  he  must  have  paid 
an  annual  land  tax  of  at  least  five  dollars.  In  October,  1881, 
the  Mikado  announced  by  a  proclamation  that,  in  1890,  a 
Parliament  would  be  established.  In  June,  1884,  an  edict 
was  issued,  readjusting  the  system  of  nobility.  In  the  newly 
created  orders  of  princes,  marquises,  counts,  viscounts  and 
barons,  were  observed  the  names  of  many  men  who  had  once 
belonged  to  the  class  of  samurai,  or  gentry,  but  who  had 
earned  promotion  by  distinguished  services  on  behalf  of  their 
country.  Three  hundred  persons,  that  may  be  described 
as  pertaining  to  the  aristocracy  of  intellect,  were  thus  ennobled 
on  the  score  of  merit. 

It  was  expected  that  out  of  these  newly  created  nobles 
would  be  constituted  the  upper  house,  or  Chamber  of  Nota- 
bles, in  the  Parliament  which  was  to  come  into  being  in 
1890.  In  December,  1885,  the  triple  premiership,  the  Privy 
Council  and  the  ministries,  as  they  had  been  hitherto  estab- 
lished, came  to  an  end.  In  their  place  was  created  a  Cabinet 
at  the  head  of  which  was  a  Minister-President.  The  old 
government  boards,  together  with  a  new  board,  which  was 
to  supervise  the  post-office,  telegraph  and  railway,  were 
organized  in  such  a  way  as  to  discharge  many  thousand  office- 
holders. All  the  members  of  the  new  Cabinet  were  men  of 
modern  ideas,  and  such  Asiatic  features  as  the  government 
had  hitherto  retained  were  now  extinguished. 

By  1886  notable  progress  had  been  made  in  the  applica- 
tions of  steam  and  electricity.  p  Of  railroads  there  were 
already  265  miles  open,  271  miles  in  course  of  construction, 
and  543  miles  contemplated.  Although  these  lines  were  built 
and  equipped  on  British  models,  most  of  the  surveying, 
engineering  and  constructive  work  and  all  of  the-,  mechanical 
labor  were  performed  by  natives.  The  trains  and  engines 
it 


162  JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO 

were  worked  by  Japanese ;  such  light  materials  as  were  made 
of  wood  and  metal  were  manufactured  in  Japan,  and  only  the 
heavy  castings,  the  rails  and  the  engines  were  brought  from 
Great  Britain.  The  telephone  and  the  electric  light  were 
now  seen  in  the  large  cities,  and  four  cables  connected  the 
island  empire  with  the  Asiatic  mainland.  Already  the  Japan 
Mail  Shipping  Company  employed  a  large  fleet  of  steamships 
and  sailing  vessels  in  their  coasting  trade  and  passenger  lines. 
We  add  that,  in  1885,  the  Postal  Department  forwarded 
nearly  100,000,000  letters  and  packages.  In  financial  affairs 
we  may  speak  of  the  organization  of  the  Bank  of  Japan, 
which  has  been  a  very  important  agent  in  sustaining  the 
finances  in  equilibrium  and  maintaining  a  stable  business 
condition. 

The  Japanese  had,  for  some  time,  recognized  that  educa- 
tion is  the  basis  of  progress,  and  that  their  efforts  for  intel- 
lectual advancement  were  seriously  impeded  by  their  use  of 
the  Chinese  graphic  system.  They  perceived  that  what  they 
needed  most  of  all  was  an  alphabet.  In  1884  the  Roma-ji- 
Kai,  or  Roman  Letter  Association,  was  formed  in  Tokio, 
and  within  two  years  had  6,000  members,  native  and  foreign. 
As  their  name  implies,  their  purpose  was  to  supplant  the 
Chinese  cha-racter  and  native  syllabary  by  the  Roman  alpha- 
bet, as  the  vehicle  of  Japanese  thought.  It  was  demonstrated 
that  all  possible  sounds  and  vocal  combinations  could  be 
expressed  by  using  twenty-two  Roman  letters.  It  was 
further  proved  that  by  means  of  the  Roman  alphabet  a  child 
could  learn  to  read  the  colloquial  and  book  language  in  one- 
,  tenth  of  the  time  formerly  required.  Scarcely  was  the  Roman 
Letter  Association  under  way  than  it  printed  a  newspaper, 
edited  text-books,  and  transliterated  popular  and  classic 
texts  in  the  appropriate  characters  of  the  Roman  alphabet. 

By  an  imperial  decree,  issued  in  November,  1884,  the 
English  language  was  made  part  of  the  order  of  study  in  the 


JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO  163 

common  schools.  Meanwhile  the  progress  of  Christianity 
acquired  considerable  momentum.  Not  only  were  many 
converts  made  by  Catholic  missionaries,  but  by  the  end  of 
1885  there  were  200  Protestant  churches,  with  a  membership 
of  over  13,000.  In  December,  1885,  the  Mikado's  Cabinet 
was  reorganized,  and  during  the  next  four  years  Ito  and 
Inouye  were  the  principal  molders  of  the  national  policy.  In 
April,  1888,  a  new  body  called  the  Privy  Council  was  created 
of  which  Ito  became  president,  while  Kuroda  filled  the  posi- 
tion of  prime  minister.  In  this  body  active  debate  upon  the 
forthcoming  Constitution  began  in  May  of  the  year  last 
named  and  proceeded  until  February  n,  1889,  when  the 
long-awaited  instrument  was  proclaimed.  Exactly  thirty- 
five  years  after  the  American  treaty-ships  appeared  in  sight 
of  Idsu,  the  Mikado,  Mutsuhito,  took  oath  to  maintain  the 
government  according  to  the  Constitution,  the  documents 
defining  which  he,  before  an  audience  of  nobles,  officials  and 
foreign  envoys,  handed  to  Kuroda,  the  principal  Minister  of 
State.  On  this  occasion,  for  the  first  time  in  Japan's  history, 
the  emperor  rode  beside  the  empress  in  public.  The  one 
blot  upon  the  record  of  the  day  was  the  assassination  of  the 
Minister  of  Education,  Arinori  Mori,  by  a  Shintoist  fanatic. 

Such  were  some  of  the  remarkable  stages  of  progress  in 
the  internal  affairs  of  Japan,  which  were  rapidly  bringing 
that  state  into  the  circle  of  the  most  advanced  nations.  But 
while  so  many  developments  were  taking  place,  alike  in  com- 
merce, manufactures,  law,  finance,  military  affairs,  and 
political  and  governmental  conditions,  the  relations  of  Japan 
as  regarded  the  foreigners  within  her  domain  remained  in  a 
very  unsatisfactory  state.  In  the  formation  of  treaties  she 
had  been  dealt  with  much  as  a  barbarian  state,  in  which  it 
was  not  safe  to  trust  foreigners  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  laws 
of  the  land,  either  .as  regarded  commercial  or  personal  affairs. 
As  time  went  on,  and  the  statesmen  of  Japan  became  familiar 


1 64  JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO 

with  the  institutions  of  Western  civilization,  they  began  to 
perceive  that  they  had  been  placed  in  a  false  position  by  the 
treaties  made  with  the  powers,  and  to  insist  on  a  more  satis- 
factory jurisdiction  over  their  home  interests. 

Thus  she  was  unable  to  exercise  the  least  jurisdiction 
over  the  criminal  foreigner  in  her  midst,  her  customs  system 
had  been  dictated  to  her  by  foreign  treaties,  and  before  she 
could  make  any  cnange  in  these  treaties  she  must  procure 
the  consent  not  only  of  the  really  great  powers,  but  also  of 
Switzerland,  Belgium,  Spain,  Portugal,  Denmark,  Holland, 
Sweden,  Hawaii,  and  Peru.  Many  of  Japan's  friends  had 
urged  her  to  "denounce"  the  treaties — to  give  formal  notice 
that  after  a  certain  date  she  would  no  longer  recognize  their 
validity.  This  would  have  been  strictly  within  her  rights, 
for  the  American  diplomatist  who  had  dictated  the  words  of 
the  first  modern  treaty  of  a  foreign  power  with  Japan  had 
expressed  his  regret  that  words  he  had  inserted  as  giving 
to  Japan  the  concession  of  revising  her  own  treaties,  had  been 
distorted  by  other  powers  into  the  claim  of  a  right  on  their 
part  to  interfere  in  this.  And  it  would  have  been  well  within 
her  ability,  too,  for  it  was  known  that  several  of  the  great 
treaty  powers  would  not  have  dreamed  of  fighting  for  their 
treaties,  and  that  in  their  absence  the  others  would  not  have 
found  it  convenient  to  do  so. 

But  Japan  adhered  to  the  slower  though  less  risky  pro- 
cesses of  negotiation.  The  result  was  that  the  conditions  of 
1866  remained  for  many  years  unchanged.  The  Japan  of 
feudalism  was  to  Europe  the  Japan  of  modern  times.  Some 
two  thousand  five  hundred  strangers  dwelt  within  her  borders, 
and  in  order  that  the  personal  and  commercial  privileges  of 
these  might  be  safeguarded,  Japan  had  no  power  over  her 
own  tariff  and  was  compelled  to  tax  her  agricultural  class 
excessively  to  provide  a  revenue ;  she  had  no  jurisdiction  over 
a  single  foreigner;  she  was  unable  to  tax  the  foreigners  who 


JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO  165 

prospered  by  her  trade;  and  while  she  had  spent  five  million 
dollars  in  lighting  and  buoying  her  coasts,  she  could  not  make 
foreign  ships  pay  either  light,  tonnage,  or  harbor  dues.  Yet 
by  treaty  she  was  entitled  to  shake  off  these  trammels.  Is 
it  surprising  that  when  the  Japanese  people  gradually  awoke 
to  a  realization  of  this  fact,  and  the  further  one  that  foreigners 
were  deliberately  delaying  any  reform  for  the  promotion  of 
their  own  advantages,  an  anti-foreign  spirit  grew  up  and 
manifested  itself  in  offensive  ways? 

In  1882  Count  Inouye  proposed  that  Japan  should  be 
opened  to  foreign  trade,  in  return  for  the  abolition  of  con- 
sular jurisdiction,  and  that  foreign  judges  should  sit  in  a 
majority  with  Japanese  judges  when  foreigners  were  tried  by 
her  new  codes.  This  was  rejected  by  the  powers,  Great  Bri- 
tain leading  the  opposition.  In  1884  it  was  proposed  to  Japan 
that  she  should  have  a  limited  jurisdiction  over  foreigners  in 
return  for  the  opening  of  a  few  more  "accessible  ports"  to 
trade.  Her  reply  was  of  course  that  she  desired  to  have 
complete  jurisdiction  and  was  prepared  to  open  her  whole 
country. 

In  1886  a  conference  of  the  sixteen  treaty  powers  was 
held  with  Japan,  and  after  a  year's  discussion  it  was  solemnly 
proposed  to  Japan  that  she  should  set  up  an  array  of  highly 
paid  foreign  judges,  with  a  staff  of  foreign  interpreters  to 
render  the  evidence  and  their  judgments  from  half  a  dozen 
foreign  languages  into  Japanese  and  back,  and  that  for  fifteen 
years  to  come  every  change  of  every  Japanese  code  should 
be  "communicated"  to  every  one  of  the  sixteen  powers — to 
Belgium,  to  Denmark,  to  Portugal,  to  Hawaii,  to  Peru! — for 
its  approval. 

So  anxious  was  Count  Inouye  to  get  the  great  question 
settled  that  he  even  accepted  these  terms,  but  the  moment 
they  were  understood  in  Japan  a  storm  of  public  indignation 
sprang  up  and  drove  him  from  office.  He  was  succeeded  by 


1 66  JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO 

Count  Okuma,  who  approached  the  sixteen  powers  separately 
and  proposed  that  the  revised  codes  should  be  promulgated 
in  English  for  two  years  before  the  abolition  of  consular 
jurisdiction,  and  that  foreign  judges  should  sit  in  a  majority 
in  all  cases  affecting  foreigners.  In  return  he  would  throw 
open  Japan  to  foreign  residence  and  trade.  To  these  pro- 
posals the  United  States,  Germany,  Russia,  and  France 
agreed.  Great  Britain,  unfortunately,  still  hung  back.  Again 
Japanese  public  opinion  manifested  the  greatest  hostility, 
and  the  natural  demand  was  made  that  the  question  should 
be  left  for  the  decision  of  the  Diet,  which  was  just  about  to 
assemble  for  the  first  time.  The  Cabinet  resigned  in  a  body, 
and  a  fanatic  lay  in  wait  for  Count  Okuma  at  the  gate  of  the 
Foreign  Office,  threw  a  dynamite  bomb  at  him,  shattering  one 
of  his  legs,  and  then  and  there  cut  his  own  throat  and  fell 
dead.  Public  opinion  was  so  charged  with  anger  that  every- 
body was  expecting  something  dreadful  to  happen,  and  when 
the  explosion  was  heard  all  present  knew  in  a  moment  what 
it  must  be. 

Viscount  Aoki  succeeded  Count  Okuma  as  Minister  for 
Foreign  Affairs,  and  made  new  tentatives  towards  settling 
the  treaty  revision  question,  but  in  vain.  An  anti-foreign 
feeling  had  now  taken  deep  root,  and  the  watchword  of  all 
parties  was,  "A  treaty  on  terms  of  absolute  equality."  And 
that  is  what  eventually  took  place.  Viscount  Aoki  was  more 
fortunate  as  ambassador  than  as  Foreign  Minister,  and  he 
concluded  with  Great  Britain  a  treaty  which  gave  to  Japan 
everything  that  she  desired.  Treaties  with  the  United  States, 
Germany,  France,  and  Russia  followed.  Japan  was  to  acquire 
complete  judicial  autonomy  after  a  period  of  at  least  five 
years,  when  the  treaty  took  effect,  and  it  remained  in  force 
for  a  period  of  twelve  years.  A  revised  tariff  was  to  go  into 
operation  a  month  after  the  exchange  of  ratifications,  except 
for  the  "most  favored  nation"  clause  in  the  Japanese  treaties 


JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO  l67 

with  other  powers;  she  would  not,  therefore,  be  able  to  avail 
herself  of  this  until  she  had  concluded  similar  treaties  with 
them. 

On  the  expiration  of  the  treaty  with  Great  Britain — that 
is  to  say,  seventeen  years  from  the  date  of  its  signing  in  j  894— 
Japan  would  come  into  possession  of  complete  tariff  autonomy 
also.  During  five  years  Japan  agreed  to  issue  passports, 
available  for  twelve  months,  to  all  accredited  British  subjects; 
and  by  the  treaty  the  whole  of  Japan  was  thrown  open  to 
British  trade,  travel,  and  residence,  and  British  subjects  were 
placed  in  every  respect  on  a  par  with  Japanese,  with  certain 
exceptions.  On  the  one  hand,  they  were  exempted  from 
compulsory  military  service  and  from  any  pecuniary  burden 
in  connection  with  it ;  and  on  the  other,  they  were  not  allowed 
to  own  land  or  to  engage  in  the  coasting  trade,  except  between 
certain  specified  ports.  Similar  regulations  governed  inter- 
course with  other  parties  making  revised  treaties. 

Everything  except  land  might  be  owned  in  the  interior, 
but  that  could  only  be  acquired  by  lease,  and  according  to 
the  Japanese  laws  and  customs  these  leases  would  probably 
be  for  thirty  and  fifty  years.  The  prohibition  of  land-owning 
by  foreigners  will  be  seen,  when  looked  at  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  Japanese,  to  be  a  reasonable  measure  of  self -pro- 
tection. If  wealthy  foreigners  were  allowed  to  acquire  by 
purchase  vast  tracts  of  land  in  Japan,  it  is  easy  to  see  how 
serious  political  and  other  diffictilties  might  arise.  Japanese 
capitalists  could  not  enter  into  competition  with  the  capitalists 
of  Europe.  By  this  treaty  for  the  first  time  Japanese  sub- 
jects are  accorded  in  Great  Britain  the  same  rights  and  privi- 
leges as  British  subjects;  this  has  hitherto  been  a  matter 
of  courtesy,  and  not  of  right.  The  same  may  be  said  con- 
cerning their  position  in  other  countries. 

The  Japanese  codes,  as  is  well  known,  were  drawn  up 
by  European  experts  and  are  equal,  theoretically,  to  any 


1 68  JAPAN  UNDER  THE  MIKADO 

criminal  and  civil  codes  in  the  world;  and  during  the  five 
years  which  were  to  elapse  before  foreigners  came  under  their 
operation  the  Japanese  judges  would  have  a  further  con- 
siderable experience  in  the  administration  of  them.  Con- 
sidering, moreover,  that  it  was  the  very  legitimate  ambition 
of  the  Japanese  so  to  act  in  all  public  matters  as  to  be  above 
the  criticism  of  Western  nations,  there  is  no  reason  to  fear 
that  any  miscarriage  of  justice  towards  foreigners  will  ensue. 
Through  the  operation  of  these  new  treaties  Japan  entered— 
first  among  Eastern  countries — into  the  charmed  circle  of 
the  great  civilized  powers,  and  the  dearest  wish  of  her  heart 
was  at  length  gratified. 


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CHAPTER  XV. 

The    Establishment    of    Constitutional 
Government  in  Japan 

First  Election  in  Japan — The  Mikado's  Generous  Act — The  Charter  Oath — Pio- 
neers of  Parliament — Local  Self-Government — The  Prefectural  Assemblies 
— Government  of  Cities,  Towns,  and  Villages — A  Parliament  Proclaimed — 
Japan  is  Given  a  Constitution — Popular  Liberty  Guaranteed — Electoral 
Regulations — The  Privy  Council  and  the  Cabinet — The  Parliament  Meets — 
Its  Members — The  Clan  Spirit — Frequent  Dissolutions  of  Parliament — 
Changes  of  Cabinets — Parties  Without  Principles — A  Hopeful  Legislative 
Outlook. 

IT  is  of  interest  to  know  that  the  first  election  ever  held  in 
Japan  for  a  parliamentary  government  took  place  on 

July  4,  1890.  The  selection  of  July  4  may  have  been 
a  curious  coincidence,  or  it  may  have  been  chosen  pur- 
posely in  recognition  of  the  great  debt  owed  by  Japan  to  the 
United  States  in  opening  the  land  of  isolation  to  civilized 
influences.  However  that  be,  the  fact  is  worth  remembering. 

The  event  here  referred  to  is  one  of  extraordinary  interest 
in  every  respect,  indicating,  as  it  does,  the  throwing  off  by 
Japan  of  the  cloak  of  old  absolutism  and  the  adoption  of 
constitutional  and  parliamentary  government.  In  the  char- 
acter of  this  remarkable  movement  Japan  stands  alone  among 
nations.  The  world's  history  presents  no  other  instance  of 
an  autocrat  voluntarily  giving  up  his  absolute  power  and 
calling  into  existence  a  Congress  or  Parliament  for  the  govern- 
ment of  his  realm.  Absolutism  has  given  way  in  various 
nations,  but  it  has  been  either  through  a  revolution,  like 
that  of  France,  or  a  slow  gaining  of  power  by  the  people 
through  persistent  demand,  as  in  England;  never,  in  any 

169 


i yo          CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN 

case  we  can  recall,  through  the  voluntary  act  of  the  sovereign 
himself.  This  fact  renders  the  act  of  the  Mikado  of  Japan 
highly  notable,  and  one  scarcely  to  be  expected  in  a  land 
so  bound  up  in  the  trammels  of  old  absolutism  as  that. 

There  were,  indeed,  special  reasons  for  this.  Chief  among 
these  doubtless  was  the  fact  that  at  the  time  of  the  revolt 
against  the  Shogun  the  old  Mikado  died,  and  his  son,  a  young 
man,  came  to  the  throne.  Surrounded  by  active  advisers 
who  were  seeking  to  regain  for  him  the  power  so  long  lost, 
he  was  naturally  grateful  to  them  and  strongly  under  their 
influence.  On  the  other  hand,  the  statesmen  among  them 
were,  no  doubt,  deeply  interested  in  the  fact  that  the  foreign 
nations  with  which  Japan  had  recently  come  into  contact 
possessed  representative  governments.  Russia,  the  one  autoc- 
racy among  them,  had  not  yet  come  nearly  so  much  in  con- 
tact with  Japan  as  the  United  States,  England,  France,  and 
Germany,  in  all  of  which  popular  government  prevailed  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  To  this  we  may  justly  impute  the 
taking  of  the  so-called  "charter  oath"  by  the  Mikado  in 
1868,  on  his  restoration  to  power  as  the  sole  ruler  of  the 
empire. 

It  is  not  likely  that  this  oath  was  in  any  sense  the  result 
of  coercion.  Most  probably  it  was  a  voluntary  act  on  the 
part  of  the  young  ruler,  though  doubtless  brought  .about 
largely  by  the  influence  and  suggestions  of  the  statesmen 
who  surrounded  him.  At  all  events,  it  was  a  mere  obliga- 
tion, since  the  solemnity  of  an  oath  has  usually  not  weighed 
heavily  on  the  conscience  of  emperors.  The  Mikado  was 
in  no  positive  sense  obliged  to  carry  it  out,  and  in  doing  so 
he  took  a  step  of  his  own  free  will  which  gives  him  a  special 
position  in  the  ranks  of  absolute  monarchs. 

It  may  be  said  here  that  the  Emperor  Mutsuhito  was 
deliberate  in  carrying  out  his  promise.  He  probably  deemed 
it  necessary  to  feel  his  way  carefully  towards  so  radical  a 


CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN          171 

change  in  the  institutions  of  his  country.  The  first  step  in 
this  direction  was  taken  as  early  as  1868,  when  an  assembly 
of  the  representatives  of  the  clans  was  called  to  meet  in  the 
capital.  This  was  called  the  Shugi-in  (House  of  Commons). 
It  consisted  of  samurai  (knights)  from  each  clan ;  and  as  they 
were  appointed  by  each  daimio  (prince),  the  body  was  a 
purely  feudal,  and  not  at  all  a  popular,  assembly.  In  1871 
a  Senate  was  established;  but  this  was  merely  an  advisory 
body,  consisting  of  officials  appointed  by  the  emperor  and 
destitute  of  legislative  power.  In  1875  the  emperor  con- 
voked a  council  of  the  officers  of  the  provincial  governments 
with  the  following  purpose:  "We  also  call  a  council  of  the 
officials  of  our  provinces,  so  that  the  feelings  of  the  people  may 
be  made  known  and  the  public  welfare  attained.  By  these 
means  we  shall  gradually  confer  upon  the  nation  a  consti- 
tutional form  of  government.  The  provincial  officials  are 
summoned  as  the  representatives  of  the  people  in  the  various 
provinces,  that  they  may  express  their  opinion  on  behalf  of 
the  people."  But  a  body  so  constituted  could  not  satisfy 
the  demands  of  the  new  age,  and  it  was  insisted  upon  that 
the  government  should  "guarantee  the  establishment  of  a 
popular  assembly."  Associations  were  organized  for  popular 
agitation  of  this  subject,  and  petitions  and  memorials  poured 
in  upon  the  government. 

In  the  meantime  the  people  were  being  educated  into 
the  new  ideas  by  the  establishment  of  local  self-government 
in  their  midst.  This  was  not  so  radical  or  difficult  a  step 
as  that  of  the  formation  of  parliamentary  institutions,  since 
under  the  old  feudal  system  local  government  by  clans  had 
existed  throughout  the  empire.  Yet  the  reconstruction  of 
local  government  was  carried  on  slowly  and  cautiously. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Shogun,  but  before  feudalism  was 
abolished  (1867  to  1871),  the  chiefs  of  the  clans  were  allowed 
to  continue  their  administration  of  local  affairs.  But  on  the 


i  -2          CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN 

abolition  of  feudalism  these  chiefs  were  retired  on  annuities, 
and  outsiders  were  largely  appointed  to  the  position  of  gover- 
nor in  the  new  local  governments.  A  more  radical  step  was 
taken  in  1878,  when  there  were  established  assemblies  in  the 
districts  of  the  prefects,  whose  members  were  chosen  through 
election  by  the  people.  Ten  years  after  that  a  new  law  was 
enacted,  under  which  local  self-government  was  extended 
from  the  prefectural  districts  to  the  cities,  towns  and  villages. 
This  law  became  operative  in  1889. 

The  prefectural  assemblies  in  Japan  have  some  resem- 
blance to  an  American  State  legislature,  but  do  not  have  like 
independent  power,  since  they  are  part  of  a  centralized 
national  administration.  They  are  "to  counsel  about  the 
budget  of  expenses  to  be  met  by  local  taxation,  and  about 
the  manner  of  collecting  such  taxes."  The  members  are 
elected  according  to  the  population,  at  the  rate  of  one  member 
for  each  20,000  people.  For  every  regular  member  two 
reserve  members  are  also  elected,  to  take  the  places  of 
regular  members  who  may  for  any  reason  be  unable  to  serve. 
The  term  of  service  covers  four  years ;  but  half  of  the  members 
retire  every  two  years.  Each  member  receives  a  salary  of  one 
yen  per  day  during  the  session,  and  traveling  expenses. 

The  legislation  done  in  this  assembly  is  not  final,  since 
it  needs  to  be  ratified  by  the  governor,  or  the  Department  of 
Home  Affairs.  It  is  thus  kept  under  the  control  of  the 
central  government,  and  is  more  like  an  electoral  board  of 
advice  than  a  legislature. 

But  in  practice  the  governor  does  not  often  put  himself 
in  opposition  to  public  opinion,  and  the  Department  of  Home 
Affairs  is  not  likely  to  exercise  authority  unless  it  is  felt  to 
be  absolutely  necessary.  The  central  government  holds  the 
power  to  control  these  assemblies,  but  it  also  respects  public 
opinion  and  leaves  them  free  to  act  independently  as  far  as 
possible. 


CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN         173 

In  the  extension  of  local  government  to  municipalities 
certain  new  regulations  were  introduced.  Distinction  was 
made,  for  instance,  between  residents,  who  included  "all 
those  who  have  their  residence  in  the  city,  town  or  village, 
without  distinction  of  sex,  age,  color,  nationality,  or  condi- 
tion in  life,  and  citizens,  each  of  whom  must  be  "  an  inde- 
pendent male  person,"  that  is,  one  who  has  completed  his 
twenty-fifth  year  and  has  a  household;  he  must  be  "a  sub- 
ject of  the  empire  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  his  civil  rights;" 
must  have  been  for  two  years  a  resident  of  a  local  division, 
and  must  have  paid  both  local  and  national  taxes. 

The  citizen  has  privileges  over  the  mere  resident,  these 
being  the  right  to  vote  in  local  elections  and  to  hold  office. 
This  right,  however,  may  be  taken  away  in  certain  circum 
stances.  It  is  suspended  in  the  case  of  those  in  actual  mili- 
tary and  naval  service.  Also,  every  citizen  is  obliged  to 
accept  any  honorary  office  to  which  he  may  be  elected  or 
appointed,  under  penalty — unless  he  be  excused  for  certain 
specified  reasons — of  suspension  of  citizenship  and  disfran- 
chisement  for  from  three  to  six  years.  He  is  also  subjected 
to  a  higher  rate  of  tax.  Citizenship  in  Japan  is  looked  on 
more  as  a  duty  than  as  a  privilege,  and  those  who  are  suited 
to  fill  official  positions  do  not  find  it  easy  to  "keep  out  of 
politics." 

The  administration  of  local  affairs  is  more  or  less  cen- 
tralized. In  the  cities  it  is  conducted  by  a  "city  council," 
and  in  the  towns  and  villages  by  certain  chiefs  and  their 
deputies.  A  city  council  consists  of  a  mayor,  his  deputy, 
and  a  certain  number  of  honorary  councilmen,  the  mayor 
being  appointed  directly  by  the  emperor  from  among  three 
candidates  previously  selected  by  the  city  assembly.  The 
deputy-mayor  and  councilmen  are  elected  by  the  city  assem- 
bly. The  councilmen  hold  office  for  four  years,  but  half 
of  them  retire  every  two  years.  When  the  city  is  large  it 


174          CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN 

may  be  divided  into  wards,  each  with  its  own  chief  and 
deputy  and  even  its  council  and  assembly. 

The  city  assembly  is  a  body  elected  by  the  people,  vary- 
ing in  membership  from  thirty  to  sixty,  the  members  being 
elected  for  six  years,  but  part  of  them  going  out  of  office 
every  two  years.  Like  the  councilmen,  they  are  not  paid 
for  their  services  beyond  their  actual  expenses.  TJie  assembly 
is  the  law-making  body,  and  also  controls  financial  and  some 
other  matters. 

It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  these  regulations 
for  government  by  the  people  have  emanated  from  the  gov- 
ernment and  not  in  response  to  any  insistent  demand  from 
the  citizens.  In  that  strange  country  it  is  the  ruling  class 
that  is  progressive  and  ready  to  accept  the  best  that  foreign 
institutions  have  to  offer.  The  people  are  conservative, 
and  wrould  be  quite  willing  to  rest  under  old  conditions. 
They  need  to  grow  up  to  a  comprehension  of  political  privi- 
leges, and  this  renders  it  necessary  to  bestow  these  upon  them 
gradually. 

We  have  mentioned  the  preliminary  steps  taken  in  the 
process  of  giving  Japan  a  national  representative  assembly 
or  Parliament,  including  the  feudal  assembly  of  1868,  the 
Senate  of  1871,  and  the  official  council  of  1875,  and  also  the 
preparatory  provincial  assemblies.  To  all  appearance  the 
emperor  was  feeling  his  way  towards  the  carrying  out  of  the 
provisions  of  his  "charter  oath."  The  greatest  step  was 
taken  on  October  12,  1881,  when  his  memorable  proclama- 
tion was  issued  that  a  National  Assembly  would  be  called 
into  existence  in  1890. 

The  next  great  step  was  taken  in  1889.  On  February 
ii  of  that  year  a  Constitution  was  given  to  the  people,  a 
document  which  took  Japan  out  of  the  line  of  despotic  Oriental 
monarchies  and  placed  her  in  advance  of  even  the  European 
country  of  Russia,  as  a  constitutional  monarchy.  On  April  i 


CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN  175 

of  that  year  the  law  establishing  municipal  self-government 
also  went  into  effect. 

The  Constitution  of  Japan,  the  "  Magna  Charta  of  Japa- 
nese liberty,  "as  it  has  been  called,  was  drawn  up  by  Count 
I  to  and  other  statesmen,  who  took  the  German  Constitution 
for  a  model.  In  it  the  emperor  liberally  reserved  rights  for 
himself.  He  is  spoken  of  as  "sacred  and  inviolate,"  "the 
head  of  the  empire,"  retaining  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty, 
but  agreeing  to  "  exercise  them  according  to  the  provisions 
of  the  Constitution."  He  may  issue  "imperial  ordinances  in 
place  of  law,"  but  only  in  case  of  urgent  necessity  and  "when 
the  Imperial  Diet  is  not  sitting,"  and  these  ordinances  must 
be  approved  by  the  Diet  at  its  next  session,  or  will  become 
invalid. 

Let  us  glance  at  some  other  of  the  features  of  Japan's 
fundamental  organic  law.  The  Constitution  proper  consists 
of  sixty-six  articles,  but  simultaneously  with  it  two  hundred 
and  sixty-six,  expositionary  laws  were  proclaimed.  A  Diet 
or  Parliament  was  created  to  meet  .once  a  year,  and  to  be 
opened,  closed,  prorogued,  and  dissolved  by  the  emperor. 
Its  debates  were  to  be  public.  The  Mikado's  ministers  may 
take  seats  and  speak  in  either  House,  but  are  accountable 
not  to  the  Diet,  but  to  the  emperor  alone.  Bills  raising 
revenue  and  appropriating  the  same  require  the  consent  of 
the  Diet,  but  certain  fixed  expenditures,  provided  for  by  the 
Constitution,  cannot  be  abolished  or  curtailed  without  the 
concurrence  of  the  executive.  To  a  large  extent  the  power 
over  the  purse  is  thus  withheld  from  the  representatives  of 
the  people.  The  tenure  of  judges  is  for  good  behavior. 

The  Upper  House,  or  House  of  Peers,  consists  partly 
of  hereditary,  partly  of  elected,  and  partly  of  nominated 
members;  the  combined  number,  however,  of  the  members 
of  the  two  last-named  classes  is  not  to  exceed  that  of  those 
who  hold  heritable  titles  of  nobilitv  The  emperor  has  the 


1 76          CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN 

power  of  appointing  a  limited  number  of  persons  to  life 
membership,  for  meritorious  services  to  the  state  or  for 
erudition.  The  House  of  Commons  consists  of  several  hun- 
dred members,  who  serve  four  years.  For  them  there  is  a 
property  qualification;  they  must  pay  annually  national 
taxes  to  the  amount  of  fifteen  yen  or  dollars.  Those  who 
elect  them  must  also  pay  national  taxes  to  the  same  amount. 
Those  persons  who  pay  taxes  to  the  amount  of  over  five  yen 
are  entitled  to  vote  for  members  of  the  local  assembly.  These 
numbered  in  1887  about  1,500,000,  whereas  the  electorate 
of  the  national  House  of  Representatives  numbered  only 
about  300,000.  We  observe,  lastly,  that  certain  fundamental 
rights  were  guaranteed  to  the  Japanese  people.  They  have, 
for  instance,  the  right  of  changing  their  domicile.  Except 
according  to  law,  they  are  not  to  be  arrested,  detained  or 
punished.  They  are  also  to  enjoy  the  right  of  freedom  from 
search,  the  inviolability  of  letters,  freedom  of  religious  belief 
and  the  liberty  of  speech,  petition,  writing,  publishing,  asso- 
ciation and  public  meeting  within  the  limits  of  laws  to  be 
laid  down  by  the  national  Parliament. 

The  threefold  election — namely,  for  a  fraction  of  the 
Upper  House,  for  the  whole  of  the  national  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, and  for  the  local  assembly — took  place  July  4, 
1890,  as  already  stated.  About  eighty-five  per  cent,  of 
eligible  voters  availed  themselves  of  the  franchise,  and  there 
was  a  great  superfluity  of  candidates.  It  turned  out  at  the 
ballot-box  that  to  be  in  any  way  connected  with  government 
employment  was  to  invite  almost  certain  defeat,  while  on  the 
other  hand  few  of  the  old  party  leaders  were  chosen  as  stand- 
ard-bearers in  the  new  Parliamentary  field. 

In  addition  to  the  Parliament  there  is  another  body 
recognized  in  the  Constitution  as  part  of  the  government. 
This  is  the  Privy  Council,  whose  members  are  appointed 
by  the  emperor,  and  which  he  consults  in  certain  exigencies. 


CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN          177 

It  is  composed  of  "personages  who  have  rendered  signal 
service  to  the  state  and  who  are  distinguished  for  their 
experience,"  including  ex-Ministers  of  State  and  others 
likely  to  give  valuable  advice.  It  is  concerned  with  the 
consideration  of  acts  of  Parliament,  questions  concerned 
with  the  interpretation  of  the  Constitution,  international 
treaties,  and  other  matters  specially  called  for.  The  exist- 
ing premier  is  a  member  ex  officio  of  the  Privy  Council,  of 
which  it  is  said  that  it  is  "the  emperor's  highest  resort  of 
counsel,  but  shall  not  interfere  with  the  executive."  The 
Cabinet  of  the  emperor  consists  of  the  premier,  or  Minister- 
President,  and  nine  heads  of  departments:  the  Ministers  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  Home  Affairs,  Finance,  the  Army,  the  Navy, 
Justice,  Education,"  Agriculture  and  Commerce,  and  Com- 
munications. 

If  we  proceed  now  with  the  history  of  the  new  govern 
ment  of  Japan,  we  find  that  it  lay  exposed  in  its  early  days 
to  various  uncomplimentary  statements  and  remarks,  to 
the  effect  that  Japan  was  merely  playing  with  representative 
institutions,  that  her  constitutional  government  was  a  farce, 
etc.  But  such  criticisms  were  made  by  people  who  did  not 
take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the  Japanese  were 
utterly  unfamiliar  with  such  methods  of  government,  and 
that  it  is  quite  certain  that  if  any  Western  nation  had  changed 
from  absolutism  to  representation  as  suddenly,  its  handling 
of  this  new  instrument  of  government  would  have  been 
marked  at  first  with  similar  imperfections. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Parliament  of  Japan 
is  still  less  than  a  score  of  years  in  age.  Its  first  session  was 
held  on  November  29,  1890,  its  first  bill  was  presented  on 
December  2,  and  its  earliest  budget,  that  for  1891,  was 
laid  before  the  House  of  Representatives  on  December  4. 
Its  members  were  utterly  new  to  their  duties,  and  many  of 
them  doubtless  infected  with  a  false  idea  of  their  importance. 

12 


178  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN 

In  consequence,  Parliament  has  been  frequently  dissolved. 
Antagonism  between  the  Houses  and  the  various  Cabinets 
has  arisen  almost  constantly,  the  Cabinet  controlling  an 
important  majority  at  no  time  except  during  the  patriotic 
excitement  of  the  Chinese  War. 

To  understand  the  state  of  affairs  we  may  say  in  the 
first  place  that,  though  the  Japanese  are  divided  into  three' 
distinct  classes,  the  aristocracy  (composed  of  the  ancient 
daimios  and  court  nobles,  and  the  new-created  nobles),  the 
shizoku  or  middle  class  (the  ancient  samurai) ,  and  the  heimin, 
or  commoners,  the  Constitution  makes  no  distinction  between 
and  grants  no  special  privileges  to  any  of  these,  except  that 
the  nobility  predominate  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  Socially 
also  there  is  little  exclusiveness,  and  the  aristocracy  may  be 
found  in  every  place  of  public  resort,  mingling  freely  with 
the  rest  of  the  people.  Many  of  the  old  daimios,  indeed, 
are  now  very  poor,  and  are  not  specially  proud.  Although 
the  highest  positions  in  the  government  are  open  to  all,  they 
have  hitherto  always  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  samurai, 
and  the  country  is  governed  by  members  of  this  very  numer- 
ous and  intelligent  class  of  gentry.  All  the  successive  min- 
isters, the  majority  of  whom  have  been  ennobled,  have 
sprung  from  its  ranks.  The  same  may  be  said  of  all  the  high 
officials,  and  of  the  majority  of  the  smaller  employes  of  the 
government,  even  down  to  the  very  police  agents  and  the 
vast  majority  of  the  military  and  naval  officers.  This  is 
not  surprising  when  we  remember  that  the  samurai  consti- 
tuted before  the  restoration  not  only  the  military,  but  also 
the  student  and  literary  class. 

"The  only  marked  feature  of  the  former  regime  which 
still  survives  the  many  social  changes  that  have  recently 
taken  place  in  Japan  is  the  clan  spirit,  which  is  as  strong 
to-day  as  ever.  The  bond  which  united  the  followers  of  a 
former  feudal  prince  among  themselves  still  subsists,  although 


CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN          179 

the  prince  himself  may  have  fallen  almost  to  the  level  of  his 
clansmen.  The  men  who  have  up  to  the  present  governed 
modern  Japan  have  always  belonged  to  southern  clans, 
especially  to  those  of  Choshju  and  Satsuma;  the  two  others, 
Hizen  and,  Tosa,  are  less  united,  and  although  certain  impor- 
tant political  personages  are  of  their  number,  they  have  had 
to  fight  their  way  to  the  front  rather  by  dint  of  hard  work 
than  through  any  clan  influence.  The  influential  combina- 
tion formed  by  the  first-named  clans,  and  unitedly  known 
as  the  Sat-Cho,  holds  in  its  hands  the  reins  of  administration, 
rules  the  army,  and  makes  its  influence  felt  even  more  strongly 
in  the  navy.  Although  according  to  the  Constitution,  analo- 
gous to  that  of  Prussia,  the  ministers  are  not  responsible  to 
the  Chambers,  but  to  the  emperor  alone,  and  although  the 
budget  of  the  current  year,  if  the  finance  bill  is  not  voted  in 
due  time,  becomes  by  law  that  of  the  following  year  also, 
the  irreconcilable  opposition  which  manifested  itself  from 
the  beginning  greatly  embarrassed  the  first  Matsukata  min- 
istry in  1891  and  1892,  and  the  Ito  ministry  which  succeeded 
it.  This  latter,  whose  plans  for  the  extension  of  the  navy 
were  obstinately  rejected  by  the  Chamber,  twice  dissolved 
it:  in  December,  1893,  and  again  in  May,  1894.  After  the  war 
patriotic  feeling  ran  so  high  that  people  cared  very  little  about 
the  government  and  its  measures,  and  projected  laws  were 
adopted  without  the  least  opposition ;  but  when  affairs  began 
to  settle  down  it  was  otherwise.  In  1897  and  1898  there  were 
two  dissolutions,  and  in  the  latter  year  the  ministry  in  power 
was  the  ninth  since  December,  1885,  and  the  seventh  since  the 
establishment  of  the  Parliamentary  system.  This  gives  an 
average  of  about  two  years  for  each  Cabinet,  and  even  less 
for  the  Chamber,  of  which  not  one  has  yet  attained  its  legal 
term."* 

As  examples  of  Parliamentary  proceeding  in  Japan  we 

*  "  The  Awakening  of  the  East,"  by  Henry  Norman. 


i8o          CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN 

may  offer  the  following  statements.  In  December,  1897, 
there  was  a  Parliamentary  crisis  in  which  the  Cabinet,  con- 
vinced that  the  majority  was  opposed  to  it,  and  governed  by 
the  disdain  of  the  Lower  Chamber  often  manifested  by  it, 
determined  to  avoid  an  appearance  of  dependence  on  that 
body,  but  declared  it  dissolved  and  offered  their  own  resig- 
nation to  the  emperor,  whom  alone  they  considered  their 
superior. 

On  December  24th  the  emperor  came  to  read  the  usual 
speech  from  the  throne  before  the  two  Chambers,  which 
offered  demonstrations  of  respect  and  loyalty  as  usual.  But 
on  the  next  day,  after  the  preliminary  proceedings,  the  doyen 
of  the  House  offered  the  following  resolution:  "That  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  declares  it  has  no  confidence  in  the 
present  ministry."  He  was  checked  at  this  point  by  the 
president,  who  read  from  a  folded  paper  that  had  just  been 
handed  him  an  imperial  mandate  saying,  "  In  virtue  of 
Article  3  of  the  Imperial  Constitution,  we  hereby  ordain  that 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  be  dissolved  forthwith."  The 
House  rose  after  a  session  of  only  seven  minutes,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  House  of  Peers  was  prorogued. 

The  resignation  of  Premier  Matsukata  and  his  colleagues 
in  the  ministry  quickly  followed,  and  the  Marquis  Ito  was 
called  upon  to  form  another  Cabinet,  which  he  undertook 
reluctantly,  in  view  of  the  serious  questions  then  confronting 
the  government,  and  accomplished  with  considerable  diffi- 
culty. The  new  Cabinet  lasted  but  a  few  months,  and  then 
was  replaced  by  another  under  the  presidency  of  Count 
Okuma.  This,  in  its  turn,  was  short-lived,  and  before  the 
end  of  1898  still  another  Cabinet  came  into  existence  under 
Marshal  Yamagata.  These  instances  will  serve  to  show  the 
difficulties  with  which  the  statesmen  of  Japan  had  to  grapple 
in  the  earlier  years  of  the  new  type  of  government. 

There  existed,  in  fact,  nothing  that  could  justly  be  called 


CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN          181 

party  government,  though  there  was  a  lively  show  of  so-called 
parties,  these  being  formed  of  groups  of  persons  with  special 
interests.  They  have  no  defined  programmes,  but  constantly 
change  their  views,  and  are  mere  cliques  surrounding  one  or 
more  influential  politicians.  In  the  Parliament  which  was 
dissolved  in  1897  by  Count  Matsukata  the  most  important 
of  these  groups  was  that  of  the  "Progressives,"  including 
some  90  to  95  members  out  of  300;  then  came  the  "  Liberals," 
with  about  80  adherents;  then  the  "National  Unionists,"  25 
to  30;  and,  lastly,  some  twenty  other  subdivisions,  besides 
the  "Independents."  The  Progressives  were  more  con- 
sistent, possibly  because  they  had  been  in  existence  only 
since  1896.  The  Liberals,  although  the  oldest  group,  had 
almost  completely  lost  their  influence  and  cohesion. 

But  it  is,  nevertheless,  true  that  "Japan  is  at  length 
passing  out  of  the  epoch  of  persons  and  entering  the  era  of 
principles,"  in  which  must  speedily  come  the  development  of 
parties.  It  is  not,  perhaps,  strange  that  the  personality  of 
the  great  statesmen  to  whom  New  Japan  owed  its  existence 
should  have  been  felt  for  so  long  a  time,  nor  that  the  able  men 
of  the  rising  generation  began  to  chafe  under  the  long  control 
of  the  older  statesmen.  But,  as  the  Japan  Times  says,  "  the 
conflict  between  the  old  and  the  new  elements  of  political 
power,  the  so-called  clan  statesmen  and  the  party  politicians, 
has  been  so  far  removed  that  the  time  is  already  in  sight 
when  the  country  will  see  them  working  harmoniously  under 
the  same  banner  and  with  the  same  platform."  The  problem 
of  political  parties  based  on  national  principles  is  the  one 
next  to  be  solved  in  Japan. 

To  quote  from  the  Japan  Mail,  "  It  would  be  altogether 
extravagant  to  expect  that  Japan's  new  constitutional  gar- 
ments should  fit  her  perfectly  from  the  first.  They  are  too 
large  for  her.  She  has  to  grow  into  them,  and  of  course  the  pro- 
cess is  destined  to  be  more  or  less  awkward. "  Marquis  Ito,  the 


i82          CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  JAPAN 

author  of  the  Constitution,  justly  says  that  "excellent  results 
have  been  obtained,  when  it  is  remembered  how  sudden  has 
been  the  transition  from  feudalism  to  representative  insti- 
tutions." When  the  Constitution  was  promulgated,  Japan 
was  only  eighteen  years  out  of  feudalism  and  twenty-one 
years  out  of  military  despotism,  and  should  be  given,  there- 
fore, great  credit  for  her  progress  in  the  early  era  of  consti- 
tutionalism. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

The  Wonderful  Progress  of  Japan 

Japan's  Power  of  Adaptation — Bismarck  and  the  Emperor  of  Japan — The  States- 
men of  the  Empire — Japanese  Commercial  Progress — Exports  from  the 
Empire — The  Rapidity  of  Industrial  Development — The  Small  and  the  Large 
Industries — Important  New  Manufactures — Cotton  and  Silk  Production — 
Mining  Progress — Articles  of  Commerce — Interesting  Facts — Trade  Unions 
and  Guilds— Yokohama  and  Tokio — European  Dress — Modes  of  Travel — • 
Railway  Development — The  Army  and  Navy — A  Summing  up  of  Progress — 
Count  Okuma's  Opinion — Asia  for  the  Asiatics. 

THE  island  empire  of  Japan,  a  nation  the  people  of  which 
are  closely  allied  in  race  to  those  of  China,  has  of  late 
years  displayed  a  progressiveness  and  a  readiness  to 
avail  itself  of  the  resources  of  modern  civilization  which 
are  strikingly  diverse  from  the  obstinate  conservatism  of 
its  densely  settled  neighbor.  The  development  of  Japan 
has  taken  place  within  the  past  half  century.  Previous  to 
that  time  it  was  as  resistant  to  Western  influences  as  China. 
They  were  both  closed  nations,  prohibiting  the  entrance  of 
modern  ideas  and  peoples,  proud  of  their  own  form  of  civili- 
zation and  their  own  institutions,  and  sternly  resolved  1£> 
keep  out  the  disturbing  influences  of  the  restless  West.  As 
a  result,  they  remained  locked  against  the  new  civilization 
until  after  the  nineteenth  century  was  well  advanced,  and 
China's  disposition  to  avail  itself  of  the  results  of  modern 
.invention  was  not  manifested  until  the  century  was  near 
its  end.  This  was  far  from  the  case  with  Japan,  which  was 
remarkably  quick  to  appreciate  the  advantage  of  Western 
methods,  and  surprisingly  ready  to  throw  overboard  her 
cargo  of  obsolete  ideas  and  avail  herself  in  every  way  of  the 

183 


184  THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN 

industrial  and  commercial  developments  brought  before  her 
vision. 

Kossuth  is  reported  to  have  said  that  the  two  most 
wonderful  men  in  the  world  were  Prince  Bismarck  and  the 
Emperor  of  Japan.  The  death  of  Bismarck  would  leave 
the  Emperor  Mutsuhito  alone  in  this  category.  As  regard^ 
the  emperor,  however,  such  an  estimate  seems  unjust  to  the 
active-minded  statesmen  by  whom  he  has  been  surrounded 
and  who  doubtless  have  been  the  vital  agents  in  Japan's 
great  reforms.  It  was  due  to  them  that,  as  a  young  man, 
the  emperor  was  induced  to  promise  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment, a  promise  which  he  has  honorably  and  wisely  kept. 
And  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  they  have  been  the 
moving  agents  in  the  great  progress  in  the  civil  and  military 
affairs  of  the  empire.  Yet  if  these  men  have  made  the  balls, 
the  emperor  has  displayed  a  remarkable  readiness  to  throw 
them,  and  should  be  given  every  credit  for  his  quickness  of 
insight  and  breadth  of  view.  And  while  he  and  his  coun- 
selors have  set  Japan  swiftly  upon  the  highway  of  progress 
in  all  things  relating  to  the  administration  and  defence  of 
the  empire,  the  business  class  of  the  country  have  shown 
an  equal  readiness  to  avail  themselves  of  the  best  the  West 
has  to  offer,  and  to  swing  Japan  broadly  into  the  current  of 
modern  industrial  and  commercial  ideas.  It  is  our  purpose 
here  to  consider  this  branch  of  Japanese  progress. 

So  rapid  and  important  has  this  been  that  already  the 
manufacturers  and  merchants  of  Japan  are  driving  Western 
producers,  to  a  marked  extent,  out  of  the  markets  of  the 
East,  and  those  versed  in  the  subject  predict  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  this  process.  The  circumstances  under  which  the 
war  with  China  almost  produced  a  commercial  crisis  in  Japan, 
bear  striking  testimony  to  the  growth  of  Japanese  manu- 
facturing interests.  In  1893  there  were  about  a  quarter  of  a 
million  cotton-spindles  in  Japan;  four  years  later  there  were 


THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN  185 

over  half  a  million.  Yet  when  the  war  came  the  banks  with- 
drew a  good  deal  of  their  credit  from  the  cotton-spinning 
companies,  which  found  themselves  threatened  with  ruin  at  a 
moment  when  their  trade  afforded  the  most  legitimate  justi- 
fication for  extension.  Under  these  circumstances  a  panic 
was  only  averted  by  the  promise  of  the  government  to  give 
assistance.  In  1875  there  was  no  cotton-spinning  in  Japan, 
as  in  that  year  the  first  European  machines,  of  small  capacity, 
were  introduced.  The  following  table,  compiled  by  a  Japa- 
nese economist,  shows  the  very  rapid  rate  of  progress  for 
a  number  of  years,  with  the  inevitable  corresponding  decline 
of  imports: 

National  Production  Foreign  Imports 

in  Japanese  Ibs.  in  English  Ibs. 

1888 956.8°4  47.439.639 

1889 20,952,687  42,810,912 

1890 ..  32,217,456  31,908,302 

1891 45,306,444  17,337,600 

1892 64,046,925  24,308,491 

It  wras  not  only  in  cotton,  however,  that  the  Japanese 
came  favorably  into  competition  with  Western  nations. 
Yokohama,  for  instance,  early  established  a  watch  factory, 
run  by  engines  of  one  hundred  horse-power,  and  equipped 
with  the  finest  watch-making  machinery  which  America 
could  furnish.  A  like  spirit  of  enterprise  was  shown  in 
match-making,  in  which  the  manufacturers  of  Japan  soon 
drove  out  all  competitors  from  the  East  by  the  cheapness 
and  abundance  of  their  product.  Ten  years  ago  Japan  was 
sending  as  many  as  five  million  gross  of  matches  annually 
to  Hong-Kong  alone,  her  clocks  were  driving  out  those  of  the 
United  States,  and  her  cotton  goods  were  making  their  way 
as  far  as  the  Straits.  Five  hundred  dozen  undershirts  were 
sent  to  Singapore  in  one  consignment. 

About  that  time  Mr.  Brennan,  a  British  consular  official 


1 86  THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN 

at  Macao,  wrote :  '  The  articles  from  Japan  at  present  con- 
sist of  curios,  cotton  cloths,  blankets,  flannels,  hosiery,  soaps, 
lamps,  tea-kettles,  matches,  hats,  umbrellas,  Gladstone  bags, 
silks,  and  such  like.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  cheapness,  I 
may  say  that  umbrellas  of  European  pattern  cost  30  cents 
to  i  dol.  (nd.  to  2S.  2d.),  and  cotton  crapes  i  dol.  to  i  dol. 
20  cents  a  piece  of  20  yards,  that  is  25.  2d.  to  25.  yd.  These 
are  of  fine  texture  and  nice  appearance,  so  that  they  are  much 
appreciated  by  Chinese  and  Europeans,  and  worn  as  dresses 
and  shirts.  Indeed,  the  competition  of  Japanese  goods  is  sure 
to  become  keener  in  course  of  time."  At  Tamsui,  Japanese 
toweling  took  the  place  of  former  importations,  and  the 
import  of  Japanese  cottons  in  1893  was  20  Per  cent,  greater 
than  in  1892.  The  export  of  matting  from  Japan  in  1893 
was  double  that  of  1892.  At  New-chwang,  Japanese  flannel, 
blankets,  brass  buttons,  lamps,  umbrellas,  pictures  and  mir- 
rors had  become  important  items,  and  at  Ningpo,  hundreds 
of  hand-gins  of  Japanese  make  had  been  imported.  In 
Korea,  Japan  was  competing  with  growing  success  with 
European  and  American  goods,  this  being  manifested  espe- 
cially in  Fusan,  in  whose  shops  could  be  seen  Japanese  imita- 
tions of  nearly  all  varieties  of  Western  goods  and  wares, 
from  piece  goods  downwards.  Besides  these  there  were  for- 
eign-style suits,  underclothing  and  hose,  felt  and  straw  hats, 
household  furniture  and  culinary  utensils,  carpets,  glassware, 
chinaware,  lamps  and  fittings,  soaps,  scents,  tinned  pro- 
visions (fish,  meat  and  vegetables),  wines  and  beer,  farming 
implements,  etc.,  mostly  made  in  Osaka  and  selling  at  prices 
very  much  cheaper  than  those  of  Western  manufacture. 

Such  was  the  state  of  Japanese  manufacturing  and 
commercial  enterprise  ten  years  ago,  and  only  forty  years 
after  Commodore  Perry's  appearance  in  the  Bay  of  Yedo. 
Nearly  twenty  years  of  this  time  were  years  of  revolution, 
in  which  the  old  government  of  the  feudal  princes  was  being 


THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN  187 

overthrown  and  the  long-obsolete  supremacy  of  the  Mikado 
being  restored.  New  political  ideas  were  penetrating  the 
minds  of  the  people,  civil  war  was  abroad  in  the  land,  and 
the  old  hostility  to  foreigners  was  slowly  being  overcome. 
It  was  not  until  this  state  of  affairs  had  passed  and  the  coun- 
try had  settled  down  again  under  its  new  regime  that  a  liberal 
welcome  could  be  given  to  foreign  industrial  ideas,  so  that 
it  may  be  held  that  the  progress  of  Japan  in  this  direction, 
great  as  it  has  been,  is  the  product  of  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century.  To  emerge  from  mediaeval  ideas  and  methods 
into  full  acceptance  and  employment  of  modern  methods 
alike  in  industry  and  government  in  this  brief  period  is  a 
phenomenon  of  which  it  would  not  be  easy  to  find  a  similar 
instance  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

In  fact,  so  far  as  manufactures  are  concerned,  it  is  not 
so  long  as  this.  As  late  as  1880  nearly  all  the  minor  trades 
of  the  country  were  divided  up  into  numerous  small  and 
widely  scattered  workshops,  in  the  old  fashion,  the  only  manu- 
factures of  greater  pretension  being  a  few  large  silk  factories 
in  the  more  important  towns,  some  paper  factories  at  Kioto, 
and  a  number  of  distilleries  for  the  making  of  sake,  or  rice 
wine.  But  there  were  not  many  of  these  and  they  employed 
few  hands.  Among  the  earliest  of  the  industries  founded 
on  a  large  scale  was  that  of  cotton-spinning,  established  in 
Osaka  in  1882,  and  the  true  era  of  the  new  industrial  develop- 
ment may  be  held  to  begin  with  that  date. 

The  growth  of  the  larger  industries  has  not  driven 
out  the  smaller  ones  which  deal  with  articles  peculiar  to 
Japan,  and  which  have  a  monopoly  they  are  likely  long  to 
retain,  such  as  of  toys  in  great  variety,  Japanese  household 
articles,  paper  fans,  umbrellas  of  Eastern  pattern,  boxes, 
screens  and  knicknacks  innumerable.  This  is  fortunate  for 
the  farmers,  who  usually  hold  very  small  tracts  of  ground, 
and  have  much  leisure  time  which  they  can  profitably  employ 


1 88  THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN 

at  home  in  the  making  of  what  are  known  as  "Japanese 
fancy  goods,"  and  which  find  a  ready  market  all  over  the 
world.  Nearly  all  the  art  industries  of  the  country  are  of 
this  individual  character,  but  side  by  side  with  the  small 
workshop  every  city  now  displays  its  tall  chimneys,  vomit- 
ing forth  smoke  in  attestation  of  the  ambitious  production 
going  on  actively  within.  At  night  the  horizon  around 
Osaka  is  bright  with  the  ruddy  glow  from  the  cotton  and 
other  factories,  and  not  far  from  the  walls  of  the  old  castle 
of  Osaka  stands  the  national  arsenal,  where  the  Japanese  of 
to-day  make  all  the  cannon  and  small  arms  necessary  for 
their  army.  Close  by  this  is  the  large  and  handsome  mint, 
one  of  the  finest  establishments  for  the  making  of  coin  in  the 
world. 

The  fathers  of  most  of  the  people  engaged  in  these 
industries  did  not  know  that  any  such  branches  of  manu- 
facture existed.  The  Japanese,  for  instance,  had  no  con- 
ception of  the  art  of  glass-blowing  until  of  late  years.  Yet 
now  there  are  several  important  glass  factories  doing  an 
excellent  business  at  Osaka,  glass  being  now  much  needed 
on  account  of  the  common  use  of  petroleum  lamps.  Many 
people  also  are  beginning  to  use  glass  in  place  of  the  paper 
screens  which  so  long  served  the  Japanese  as  windows. 
There  are  breweries  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and 
admirable  beer  is  being  produced,  which  is  largely  exported, 
going  as  far  as  Vladivostok  and  Singapore.  Brushes  of  every 
description  are  manufactured  in  Japan,  and  exported  in  great 
quantities  to  the  United  States.  The  pigs'  bristles  and  bones 
used  in  these  have  to  be  imported,  for  the  reason  that  the 
porcine  animal  producing  them  is  very  little  known  in  Japan. 

Other  recent  industries  which  may  be  mentioned  are 
iron  foundries,  copper  and  tin  works,  ship-yards,  and  jute 
carpet  works,  the  latter  producing  in  great  quantity  cheap 
and  pretty  carpets,  which  are  exported  to  the  United  States 


THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN  189 

and  elsewhere.  Their  great  cheapness,  lasting  qualities  and 
attractive  patterns  have  made  them  widely  popular.  Of  the 
various  industries,  however,  the  most  important  as  yet  are 
those  of  cotton-spinning  and  match-making. 

Japan  raised  a  great  deal  of  cotton,  though  by  no  means 
enough  for  the  needs  of  her  factories,  and  has  to  import 
large  quantities  from  America  and  India;  cotton  being  the 
principal  material  used  in  the  clothes  of  the  common  people, 
who  cannot  afford  silk  robes.  Formerly  all  the  yarn  was 
spun  by  hand;  but  Japan  had  76  cotton- mills  in  1900,  some 
of  them  large  and  employing  many  hands.  She  has  now 
more  than  200  mills,  with  nearly  1,000,000  spindles.  The 
silk  industry  is  also  very  important,  not  alone  for  home  use, 
but  for  foreign  trade.  The  silk  is  exported  largely  in  its 
raw  state,  but  is  also  manufactured  for  export  into  handker- 
chiefs and  other  goods.  The  silk  exports  for  1898  amounted 
to  $31,000,000,  and  are  on  the  increase.  Something  should 
be  said  here  also  of  the  mining  industry,  which  is  of  growing 
importance,  Japan  being  rich  in  mineral  resources.  The 
most  important  of  her  mineral  products  is  coal,  of  which 
there  is  a  surplus  for  export.  Copper,  silver,  sulphur  and 
antimony  are  also  largely  found.  Iron,  gold,  tin,  lead,  salt 
and  other  minerals  are  less  abundant.  Petroleum  is  one  of  the 
important  earth-products,  though  not  nearly  sufficient  to 
supply  the  large  home  demand,  considerable  quantities  being 
imported.  The  coal  mines  yield  nearly  1,000,000  tons  yearly, 
the  supply  being  of  fine  quality  and  apparently  inexhaustible. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  Japan  has  for  years  shown  a 
marked  ratio  of  increase.  In  1896  it  amounted  to  $145,000,- 
ooo.  In  1903  it  was  $313,000,000,  showing  an  increase  of 
more  than  100  per  cent,  in  seven  years.  The  purchases 
from  the  United  States  in  the  last-named  year  amounted 
to  $21,000,000. 

The   imports   were    formerly   largely   in   excess   of   the 


1 90  THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN 

exports,  the  excess  amounting  to  $55,000,000  in  1898.  But 
in  1901,  three  years  later,  this  had  been  reduced  to  about 
$1,750,000,  the  rapid  growth  of  exports  bringing  about  this 
marked  change.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  silk  (either 
raw,  or  partly  or  wholly  manufactured),  cotton  yarn  and 
goods,  matches,  coal,  high-grade  rice,  copper,  camphor, 
tea,  matting,  straw  braid,  and  porcelain.  The  principal 
imports  are  raw  cotton,  shirting  and  printed  cotton,  muslin, 
wool,  cotton  velvet,  satin,  cheap  rice,  flour,  sugar,  petroleum, 
oil  cake,  peas  and  beans,  machinery,  iron  and  steel  (including 
nails  and  rails),  steamers,  locomotives,  and  railway  carriages. 
The  United  States,  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  France 
and  China  are  the  chief  countries  to  which  exports  are  sent, 
while  imports  are  received  mainly  from  the  same  countries 
and  from  Germany. 

Other  facts  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  progress 
of  Japan  are  those  concerning  the  postal  system  and  the 
schools.  There  are  in  the  empire  4,852  post-offices,  or  one 
for  every  9,700  people,  a  ratio  considerably  above  that  of 
Russia.  The  elementary  schools  have  4,302,625  pupils,  or 
nearly  one  hundred  for  every  thousand  persons  in  the  country. 
In  this  Japan  greatly  surpasses  Russia,  which  has  about  the 
same  number  of  pupils  for  a  population  nearly  three  times 
as  large.  A  similar  disproportion  exists  in  secondary  schools 
and  universities.  Another  fact  not  unworthy  of  mention 
here  is  that  the  total  area  of  Japan  is  about  equal  to  that  of 
the  State  of  Montana,  while  her  population  is  more  than 
half  that  of  the  whole  United  States.  It  is  fortunate  for 
the  people  that  their  food  production  is  large  and  their  appe- 
tite small,  or  their  diminutive  country  could  not  support  its 
population.  As  it  is,  there  is  a  fair  quantity  of  food  raised 
for  export,  in  addition  to  that  needed  for  the  people. 

While  Japan  has  been  so  actively  introducing  the  profit- 
able industrial  systems  of  the  West,  it  has  brought  in  some 


Western  ideas  whose  desirability  some  may  question.  These 
are  the  institutions  of  the  guild,  the  trade  union,  and  the 
strike.  Feudal  Japan  had  its  guilds,  but  these  institutions 
are  run  now  on  modern  lines.  One  of  the  oldest  and  strongest 
of  them  is  that  of  the  dock  coolies,  who  are  so  compactly 
organized  that  they  have  almost  an  absolute  monopoly, 
.  their  strikes  being  always  successful.  Other  guilds  are  those 
of  the  sawyers,  the  plasterers,  the  stonemasons,  the  brick- 
layers, the  carpenters,  the  barbers,  the  wrestlers,  the  actors, 
and  even  the  gamblers  and  the  pickpockets.  The  more  mod- 
ern labor  unions  include  the  iron-workers,  the  ship-carpen- 
ters, the  railway  engineers,  the  railway  workmen,  the  printers, 
and  the  European-style  cooks.  Of  these  the  dock  coolies, 
the  railway  laborers,  and  the  railway  engineers  have  become 
masters  of  the  situation. 

The  organization  of  these  modern  unions  is  due  largely 
to  the  efforts  of  a  young  man  named  Sen  Katayama,  who  is 
the  champion  of  the  rights  of  the  laboring  man  in  Japan.  He 
spent  ten  years  in  America  and  made  a  special  study  of  social 
problems,  and  has  introduced  a  model  of  the  London  Kingsley 
Hall,  as  a  social  settlement  in  the  heart  of  Tokio.  He  edits 
the  Labor  World,  the  organ  of  the  working  classes. 

Yokohama,  where  Perry  obtained  his  treaty,  was  at 
that  time  a  miserable  little  fishing  village  containing  about 
a  hundred  houses.  In  1858  it  was  opened  to  foreign  com- 
merce, in  place  of  Shimoda,  and  is  now  a  town  of  170,000 
inhabitants,  and  the  third  largest  port  in  the  Far  East,  being 
surpassed  only  by  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai.  The  European 
quarter  is  full  of  fine  houses,  surrounded  by  charming  gardens. 
There  are  settled  here  several  thousand  foreigners  of  various 
nationalities,  exclusive  of  Chinese.  The  port  is  spacious  and 
commodious,  and  the  largest  ships  can  anchor  close  up  to 
the  quay. 

The  former  Yedo,  now  Tokio,  the  capital  of  Japan,  is  the 


i92  THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN 

largest  town  in  Asia,  and  the  ninth  in  the  world,  having  in 
1900  a  population  of  1,507,557.  It  is  spread  over  a  space 
much  larger  than  that  occupied  by  Paris,  the  cause  of  its 
great  size  being  that  everybody  lives  in  his  own  house,  which 
is  never  more  than  one  story  high,  and  nearly  every  house 
has  its  little  garden.  It  has  also  a  great  many  open  spaces, 
where  formerly  stood  the  palaces  of  the  daimios.  On  the 
site  of  several  of  them  great  public  buildings  have  been 
erected  after  the  European  fashion,  among  which  are  the 
palaces  of  the  various  ministries,  and  also  the  Parliament 
House;  but  many  of  them  are  still  waiting  to  be  utilized. 
The  old  rampart  surrounding  the  immense  park  of  the  impe- 
rial palace  is  used  as  a  public  promenade;  and  as  you  walk 
along  it  and  look  toward  the  palace,  it  is  difficult  to  believe 
that  you  are  in  Japan,  everything  is  so  very  European.  The 
waste  land  contains  a  perfect  forest  of  telegraph  and  telephone 
poles;  telephones,  telegraph,  electric  light,  gas,  petroleum 
lamps,  etc.,  being  as  plentifully  used  in  Tokio  as  they  are 
in  any  English  or  American  town.  It  is  most  interesting  to 
notice,  as  you  pass  along  the  streets,  artisans  working  in 
their  houses  by  the  light  of  an  Edison  lamp.  When  they 
cannot  afford  electricity  or  gas,  they  use  petroleum  exclu- 
sively. 

European  dress  is  also  used  to  a  considerable  extent, 
officials  in  particular  wearing  the  costume  of  the  West, 
though  there  is  a  tendency  to  revert  to  the  native  costume. 
This  is  strongly  displayed  by  the  ladies,  who  have  largely 
laid  aside  the  Parisian  styles  which  they  at  first  enthusias- 
tically adopted,  and  returned  to  the  native  dress.  But 
English  hats  of  different  kinds  and  German  caps  are  worn 
by  men  of  every  class  of  society.  For  traveling  purposes 
the  old  palanquin  has  almost  disappeared,  being  replaced 
by  the  jinrikisha,  a  vehicle  of  American  invention,  but  now 
very  widely  used  in  the  Far  East.  It  has  two  very  tall  wheels 


THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN  193 

and  seating-room  usually  for  one  person,  and  is  drawn  by 
man-power,  the  native  runners  being  remarkable  for  the 
speed  with  which  they  can  pull  these  vehicles  and  the  distance 
they  can  make  without  rest. 

For  more  distant  travel  the  Western  methods  have  come 
generally  into  use,  including  the  stage,  the  horse-car,  the 
railroad,  and  the  electric  railway,  and  also  the  bicycle  and 
the  automobile.  Japan  has  at  present  over  3,000  miles  of 
railroad  line,  and  1,200  more  are  said  to  be  greatly  needed. 
The  large  island  of  Hondo  has  a  continuous  line  from  the 
extreme  north  to  the  extreme  south,  and  after  crossing  the 
strait,  Kiu-siu  is  traversed  by  a  line  running  south  to  Naga- 
saki and  to  Numamoto.  In  Yesso  is  a  short  line  built  by 
American  engineers,  but  all  the  others  follow  the  British 
methods.  The  government  owns  most  of  the  railways. 
Railway  speed  rarely  exceeds  twenty  or  twenty-five  miles 
an  hour,  though  some  express  trains  make  thirty  or  more 
miles,  the  people  being  as  yet  content  with  these  rates 
of  speed.  Telegraphs  accompany  the  lines  and  extend  else- 
where, and  in  1901  over  16,000,000  telegrams  were  sent,  a 
number  which  is  increasing  rapidly  each  year.  The  railways 
are  run  with  native  labor  exclusively,  and  everything  neces- 
sary for  the  construction  and  equipment  of  the  roads,  except 
locomotives,  can  be  built  in  the  empire. 

A  postal  system  on  the  American  model  was  introduced 
in  1872,  and  five  years  later  Japan  became  a  member  of  the 
International  Postal  Union.  In  some  respects  the  system 
has  grown  to  excel  its  model,  and  is  one  of  the  best  in  the 
world.  Letter  postage  is  3  sen  (i|  cents)  within  the  empire 
and  10  sen  to  all  countries  of  the  Postal  Union. 

If  we  come  now  to  consider  the  military  system  of  Japan— 
a  topic  of  special  interest  in  connection  with  the  Russian 
war — it  must  be  said  that  progress  in  this  direction  has  quite 
equaled  thai!  in  the  other  directions  named.      The  ancient 

13 


194  THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN 

arms  and  methods  have  been  utterly  discarded  and  the 
army  and  navy  of  the  empire  have  been  remodeled  after 
the  most  approved  modern  system. 

The  Japanese  army  and  navy  are  created  and  sustained 
by  a  conscription  system  like  that  of  Germany.  Theoreti- 
cally, "  all  males  between  the  full  ages  of  seventeen  and  forty 
fy'ears,  who  are  Japanese  subjects,  shall  be  liable  to  conscrip 
tion."  The  period  of  service  is  divided  up  as  follows:  (i) 
Active  service  with  the  colors,  for  three  years  in  the  army  and 
four  years  in  the  navy,  by  those  who  have  "  attained  the  full 
age  of  twenty  years;"  so  that  those  who  are  between  seven- 
teen and  twenty  are  apparently  exempt  except  "in  time  of 
war  or  other  emergency;"  (2)  First  Reserve  term,  of  four 
years  in  the  army  and  three  years  in  the  navy,  "  by  such  as 
have  completed  their  service  with  the  colors;"  (3)  Second 
Reserve  term  of  five  years,  "by  those  who  have  completed 
their  service  in  the  First  Reserves;"  and  (4)  Service  in  the 
Territorial  Army  for  the  remaining  years  by  those  who  have 
completed  the  preceding  term.  The  ordinary  service  in 
barracks  is  only  three  years,  the  Reserves  and  the  Territorial 
Army  being  obliged  to  appear  for  drill  only  once  a  year, 
though  liable  to  be  called  out  in  time  of  war  or  of  emergency. 

The  war-footing  of  the  Japanese  army  exceeds  500,000 
men,  and  its  peace-footing  is  almost  200,000:  these  figures 
take  account  only  of  combatants.  Its  discipline,  courage/ 
and  endurance  have  been  clearly  exhibited  side  by  side  with 
the  troops  of  Western  nations  in  China,  and  the  army  has 
been  called  "the  most  formidable  mobile  land  force  in  the 
Far  East,  indeed  in  the  whole  of  Asia,"  and  "the  best  army 
in  the  world,  for  its  size." 

The  guns  for  the  artillery  service  used  to  be  purchased 
abroad,  but  are  now  chiefly  manufactured  in  Osaka.  There 
is  an  arsenal  in  Tokio  where  the  once  famous  Murata  rifle 
was  manufactured;  but  that  has  been  superseded  by  the 


THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN  195 

"  3oth  Year"  rifle;  both  of  these  being  Japanese  inventions. 
The  arsenal  also  turns  out  ammunition  at  the  ordinary  rate 
of  a  million  rounds  a  day. 

As  Japan  is  entirely  an  insular  nation,  the  importance 
of  her  navy  cannot  be  overestimated.  Even  before  the  war 
with  China,  this  had  been  rapidly  growing;  and  it  showed 
its  marked  efficiency  in  the  battles  of  the  Yalu  and  Wei- 
hai-wei.  The  subsequent  plans  for  expansion  have  empha- 
sized the  value  to  Japan  of  sea-power;  and  the  programme 
of  naval  expansion  has  met  comparatively  little  opposition. 
For  purposes  of  administration,  the  coast  of  Japan  is  divided 
into  five  naval  districts,  each  with  one  fort  which  is  a  first- 
class  naval  station.  These  stations  are  Yokosuka,  Kure, 
Sasebo,  Maizuru,  and  Muroran.  The  strength  of  the  navy 
is  given  in  another  chapter.  Its  efficiency  has  been  remark- 
ably shown  in  the  opening  of  the  war  with  Russia. 

To  sum  up  some  of  the  facts  given  in  this  chapter,  we  may 
fitly  do  so  in  the  words  of  Mr.  John  Barrett,  a  leading  authority 
on  the  -politics  and  trade  of  the  Far  East : — 

"Japan  has  astonished  the  world  by  her  marvelous 
strides  to  an  acknowledged  position  among  the  first  powers 
of  the  earth.  Her  development  during  the  last  half  century 
is,  in  some  respects,  more  remarkable  than  that  of  the  United 
States.  Fifty  years  ago,  when  Commodore  Perry  rapped 
somewhat  roughly  at  her  gates,  she  was,  in  material  progress, 
governmental  administration,  and  educational  development, 
little  beyond  where  she  stood  a  thousand  years  before.  Now 
her  snug  little  realm  is  traversed  with  railways  and  spotted 
with  manifold  industries,  her  political  system  compares 
favorably  with  the  monarchies  of  Europe,  and  her  colleges 
and  schools  are  graduating  hosts  of  young  men  fitted  for 
every  position  of  responsibility.  Her  foreign  commerce  has 
expanded  in  thirty  years  from  $30,000,000  to  $300,000,000 
per  annum.  This  is  an  increase  of  i  ,000  per  cent,  per  annum, 


i96  THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN 

a  record  unrivaled  by  any  other  country  in  the  eame  time 
or  under  similar  conditions.  Starting  with  no  merchant 
marine,  she  now  has  her  cargo  and  passenger  steamers  run- 
ning to  all  parts  of  the  globe  in  successful  competition  with 
the  fleets  of  the  older  and  richer  nations.  With  no  modern 
war  vessels  twenty  years  ago,  she  now  has  a  navy  ranking 
next  to  our  own  in  effectiveness.  With  an  army  a  few 
decades  past  that  was  barbaric  in  equipment,  she  possesses 
to-day  a  trained  armed  force  that,  in  comparison  to  her 
area  and  population,  is  second  to  none." 

It  is  not  surprising  that,  after  so  brilliant  a  display  of 
the  facility  to  assimilate  foreign  ideas  and  in  certain  respects 
the  ability  to  improve  on  them,  the  Japanese  should  have 
become  somewhat  vain  of  their  powers,  and  we  can  readily 
understand  the  exaggerated  display  of  self-confidence  and 
ambition  shown  in  the  following  extract  from  a  speech  by 
Count  Okuina,  ex-Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs:— 

'The  European  powers  are  already  showing  symptoms 
of  decay,  and  the  next  century  will  see  their  constitutions 
shattered  and  their  empires  in  ruins.  Even  if  this  should 
not  quite  happen,  their  resources  will  have  become  exhausted 
in  unsuccessful  attempts  at  colonization.  Therefore  who 
is  fit  to  be  their  proper  successors  if  not  ourselves?  What 
nation  except  Germany,  France,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Italy 
can  put  200,000  men  into  the  field  inside  of  a  month?  As 
to  their  finance,  there  is  no  country  where  the  disposal  of 
surplus  revenue  gives  rise  to  so  much  political  discussion. 
As  to  intellectual  power,  the  Japanese  mind  is  in  every  way 
equal  to  the  European  mind.  More  than  this,  have  not  the 
Japanese  opened  a  way  to  the  perfection  of  a  discovery  in 
which  foreigners  have  not  succeeded  even  after  years  of  labor  ? 
Our  people  astonish  even  the  French,  who  are  the  most  skilful 
among  artisans,  by  the  cleverness  of  their  work.  It  is  true 
the  Japanese  are  small  of  stature,  but  the  superiority  of  the 


THE  WONDERFUL  PROGRESS  OF  JAPAN  197 

body  depends  more  on  its  constitution  than  on  its  size.  If 
treaty  revision  were  completed,  and  Japan  completely  victo- 
rious over  China,  we  should  become  one  of  the  chief  powers  of 
the  world,  and  no  power  could  engage  in  any  movement 
without  first  consulting  us.  Japan  could  then  enter  into 
competition  with  Europe  as  the  representative  of  the  Oriental 
races." 

This  seems  like  drawing  the  long-bow  rather  too  strongly, 
but  it  is  of  interest  as  pointing  the  way  in  which  Japanese 
ambition  tends.  It  is  quite  possible  that  "Asia  for  the 
Asiatics"  may  be  a  future  rallying  cry  of  the  Far  East,  and 
Japan  rival  the  United  States  as  the  promulgator  of  a  "Mon- 
roe Doctrine,"  like  that  so  vigorously  applied  to  American 
continental  questions  of  national  concern.  , 


CHAPTER  XVIL 

The  War  Between  Japan  and  China 

Japan's  Jealous  Eye  on  Korea  and  the  Islands — The  Acquisition  of  Loo  Choo — 
Formosa  and  Saghalien — The  Empress  Jingu  Conquers  Korea — Tribute  to 
Japan — A  Second  Invasion  of  Korea— The  Hermit  Kingdom — Korea  Opened 
to  the  World — Japan  and  China  in  Korea — -Rebellion  of  the  Tong  Haks — 
The  Empress  of  China  Decides  for  War — The  Sinking  of  the  Kowshing — - 
The  Battle  of  the  Yalu — The  Capture  of  Port  Arthur — The  Forts  and  Fleet 
at  Wei-hai-wei  Taken  by  the  Japanese — Admiral  Ting  Commits  Suicide — 
What  Japan  Gained  from  the  War — A  Partial  Partition  of  China. 

FOR  centuries  past  Japan  has  kept  a  j'ealous  eye  upon 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific  in  its  vicinity,  and  still  more 
on  the  important  peninsula  of  Korea,  the  nearest 
portion  of  the  mainland.  This  country,  inhabited  by  a 
semi-barbarian  people,  quite  incapable,  as  it  seems,  of  main- 
taining themselves  against  their  powerful  neighbors,  has 
long  been  a  bone  of  contention  between  Japan  and  China, 
and  owes  its  degree  of  independence  more  to  the  jealous 
rivalry  of  these  empires  than  to  any  inherent  strength  or 
national  spirit  of  its  own.  It  is  the  final  result  of  this  rivalry, 
in  the  war  of  1894-95,  with  which  we  are  at  present  concerned. 

The  relations  between  Japan  and  China  have  been 
severely  strained  on  several  occasions  in  the  past  in  regard 
to  the  ownership  of  neighboring  lands.  Such  was  the  case 
with  the  little  island  kingdom  Riu  Kiu,  or  Loo  Choo,  a  group 
strung  out  like  a  long  thread  between  Japan  and  Formosa. 
For  many  centuries  these  islanders  sent  tribute  to  both 
China  and  Japan.  Toward  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century 
Hideyoshi  demanded  that  they  should  pay  tribute  to  Japan 
alone,  but  he  never  enforced  his  demands,  In  1609  lyehisa, 

198 


THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND  CHINA  igg 

the  Dannio  of  Satsuma,  conquered  the  islands  and  made 
their  chiefs  swear  allegiance  to  his  house  and  to  the  Shogun. 
Between  1611  and  1850  no  fewer  than  fifteen  embassies 
from  Riu  Kiu  visited  Yedo  to  obtain  investiture  for  the 
island  king,  or  to  congratulate  a  Shogun  upon  his  accession 
to  power.  The  same  policy,  however,  was 'pursued  toward 
China  also.  After  the  revolution  of  1868  the  Loo  Choo 
Islands  were  made  a  dependency  of  the  Japanese  empire, 
and  the  king  acknowledged  the  Mikado  for  his  suzerain. 
Some  five  years  later,  the  Japanese  reduced  the  king  to  the 
status  of  a  retired  daimio,  and  transformed  Riu  Kiu  into 
a  ken,  or  prefecture.  To  this  the  islanders  objected,  and 
continued  to  send  a  tribute-junk  to  Ningpo,  and  implored 
China's  interposition.  The  Peking  government,  on  its  part, 
considered  that  Japan,  by  its  annexation  of  the  Loo  Choo 
Islands,  had  wrongfully  cut  off  a  fringe  of  the  robe  of  the 
Middle  Kingdom;  but  it  took  no  active  steps  to  enforce  its 
claim,  and  Japan  remains  in  possession. 

Similar  questions  arose  as  to  the  position  of  the  large 
island  of  Formosa,  which  was  claimed  by  China,  with  the 
exception  of  the  eastern  section,  a  region  inhabited  by  fierce 
savages,  who  defied  in  their  mountains  and  forests  the  con- 
quering efforts  of  China.  This  being  the  case,  the  Emperor 
of  China  conceded  to  Japan,  in  1874,  the  right  to  chastise 
these  warlike  tribes  for  certain  outrages  committed  on 
wrecked  Japanese  sailors.  A  force  was  sent  there  and  the 
tribal  district  quickly  overrun,  the  Japanese  then  proceeding 
to  occupy  this  portion  of  the  island,  building  roads,  organiz- 
ing military  camps  and  constructing  fortifications,  China, 
jealous  of  these  operations,  now  claimed  the  whole  island 
as  its  own  and  denounced  the  Japanese  as  intruders,  and 
for  a  time  war  seemed  inevitable.  In  the  end,  however,  the 
Japanese  accepted  the  Chinese  view  and  withdrew,  China 
paying  them  an  indemnity  of  $700,000  for  their  losses.  But 


200  THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND   CHINA 

this  very  poorly  repaid  Japan,  for  the  war  with  the  savages 
had  cost  her  $5,000,000  in  money  and  seven  hundred  lives. 

About  the  same  time  a  question  of  ownership  arose 
between  Japan  and  Russia  concerning  the  large  northern 
island  of  Saghalien,  which  had  been  the  occasion  of  the  first 
hostile  relations  between  these  countries.  This  island,  claimed 
by  Japan,  yet  very  thinly  inhabited,  had  been  intruded  on 
by  Russia  as  long  ago  as  1790,  the  northern  part  being  forcibly 
occupied,  and  there  had  been  a  good  deal  of  bloodshed  between 
the  rival  claimants.  This  question  was  settled  amicably 
in  1875,  by  a  treaty  in  which  the  whole  of  Saghalien  was 
ceded  to  Russia,  Japan  obtaining  in  exchange  sovereignty 
over  all  the  Kurile  Islands. 

Japan's  relations  with  Korea  were  destined  to  have  far 
more  momentous  consequences  in  bringing  about  an  important 
war,  whose  results  had  much  to  do  with  raising  the  island 
empire  to  the  position  of  one  of  the  leading  powers  of  the 
world.  Though  China  for  centuries  had  claimed  sovereign 
authority  over  Korea,  Japan  maintained  a  counter  claim, 
based  on  actual  conquest.  This  took  place  as  long  ,ago  as 

201  A.  D.,  when  the  valiant  Empress  Jingu  led  a  large  army 
against  that  kingdom  and  completely  subdued  it.     The  king 
agreed  to  pay  tribute  to  Japan  and  gave  noble  hostages  in 
pledge  of  his  good  faith,  and  the  fleet  of  the  empress  sailed 
back  deep  laden  with  precious  spoil.     For  a  long  time  after 
that  period  Korea  continued  to  pay  tribute,  and  the  relations 
between  the  two  countries  continued  close,  knowledge  of  the 
arts  and  thoughts  of  Asia  reaching  the  island  empire  chiefly 
through  Korean  channels.     We  hear  of  envoys  bearing  a 
tribute  of  horses,  of  tailors,  and  finally  of  a  schoolmaster, 
who  introduced  the  art  of  writing  into  Japan.     Mulberry 
trees  and  silk  culture  were  also  introduced  from  Korea,  and 
in  the  year  552  came  a  party  of  doctors,  astronomers,  astrolo- 
gists   and   mathematicians  from   Korea,   and  with  them  a 


THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND  CHINA  201 

number  of  Buddhist  priests,  who  brought  into  the  land  a 
new  religion,  which  went  far  to  replace  the  old  Shinto  or 
ancestoi  worship.  In  this  way  the  arts,  sciences,  letters  and 
religions  of  Asia  made  their  way  into  Japan,  constituting 
the  first  wave  of  civilization  which  swept  over  the  old 
barbarism  of  the  land. 

Korea  was  again  invaded  by  a  Japanese  army  in  1592, 
on  which  occasion  the  country  was  overrun  and  the  armies 
of  Japan  came  into  serious  conflict  with  those  of  China.  The 
war  continued  for  six  years.  On  these  two  wars  was  based 
the  claim  that  Korea  is  a  vassal  state  under  Japan,  which, 
however,  held  no  Korean  territory  except  the  port  of  Fusan. 
In  the  succeeding  period  Korea  closed  her  soil  against  both 
China  and  Japan.  Tribute  was  paid  to  both,  but  so  strict 
a  policy  of  isolation  was  maintained  that  Korea  won  the 
titles  of  the  Hermit  Kingdom  and  the  Forbidden  Land. 
This  state  of  affairs  remained  intact  until  1868,  Korea  regu- 
larly sending  embassies  to  do  homage  to  Japan,  but  strictly 
continuing  its  ancient  seclusion.  The  final  opening  of  Korea 
to  the  world  was  brought  about  as  a  consequence  of  the  visit 
of  Commodore  Perry  to  Japan,  and  the  complete  change  in 
the  policy  of  that  land.  The  Korean  monarch,  disgusted 
by  Japan's  departure  from  the  time-honored  traditions  of 
isolation,  and  emboldened  by  the  failure  of  certain  French 
and  American  expeditions  against  his  territory,  sent  to 
Tokio  insulting  letters,  in  which  he  taunted  Japan  with 
slavish  truckling  to,  the  foreign  barbarians  and  declared 
himself  an  enemy.  This  incident,  which  took  place  in  1872, 
rendered  the  project  of  a  war  with  Korea  extremely  popular 
in  the  Japanese  army  and  navy.  Some  years,  however, 
were  to  elapse  before  an  armed  contest  took  place  between 
the  two  countries,  and  a  treaty  of  peace,  friendship  and  com- 
merce was  concluded  between  them  on  February  27,  1876. 
In  pursuance  of  this  treaty,  Japan,  in  1876,  secured  the 


202  THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND  CHINA 

opening  of  the  port  of  Fusan  to  her  trade,  as  compensation 
for  an  outrage  perpetrated  on  some  of  her  sailors.  In  1880 
Chemulpo,  the  port  of  Seoul,  the  Korean  capital,  was  also 
thrown  open  to  Japanese  commerce.  Two  years  later  the 
United  States  obtained  similar  rights  of  commerce,  and 
most  of  the  countries  of  Europe  soon  followed,  the  isolation 
of  the  Hermit  Kingdom  coming  thus  to  an  end. 

The  activity  of  the  Japanese  now  gave  umbrage  to  the 
court  of  Peking,  and  in  1881  a  draft  of  a  commercial  treaty  was 
drawn  up  by  the  Chinese  authorities,  in  conjunction  with  the 
representatives  of  the  principal  Western  powers  at  the  Chinese 
capital,  and  carried  to  Seoul  for  acceptance  by  the  American 
naval  officer,  Commodore  Shufeldt.  The  treaty,-  being 
recommended  by  China,  was  naturally  accepted  by  Korea. 
When  the  Japanese,  however,  observed  that  the  Chinese 
were  putting  forward  a  pretension  to  control  exclusively  the 
destinies  of  the  Hermit  Kingdom,  they  determined  to  assert 
their  old  claim  to  an  equal  voice  with  China  in  the  Korean 
peninsula.  They  allied  themselves  with  the  so-called  pro- 
gressive party  in  Korea,  and  thus  forced  China  to  link  her 
fortunes  with  the  reactionists. 

Except  among  the  reformers,  who  constituted  but  a 
weak  minority  of  the  Korean  population,  the  Japanese  were 
far  from  popular  in  the  Hermit  Kingdom,  and  in  June,  1882, 
the  reactionists  attacked  the  Japanese  Legation,  murdered 
some  of  its  inmates  and  compelled  the  survivors  to  flee. 
Thereupon  the  Japanese  sent  a  force  to  exact  reparation, 
while  the  Chinese,  on  their  part,  sent  a  force  to  restore  order. 
A  temporary  accommodation  was  effected,  but  for  two  years 
Chinese  and  Japanese  soldiers  remained  close  to  one  another 
under  the  walls  of  Seoul.  In  December,  1884,  a  second  colli- 
sion occurred  between  the  Japanese  and  Koreans,  the  latter 
being  aided  this  time  by  the  Chinese.  The  first  named  were 
compelled  to  flee.  The  Tokio  government  obtained  repara- 


THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND  CHINA  203 

tion  for  this  fresh  outrage,  but,  not  satisfied  therewith,  it 
dispatched  Count  Ito  to  Peking  to  bring  about  some  permanent 
arrangement.  There  is  no  doubt  that  at  this  time  the  Chinese 
occupied  a  much  stronger  position  in  Korea  than  did  the 
Mikado's  subjects,  but  the  advantage  was  thrown  away 
by  an  agreement  which  tied  China's  hands  and  had  far- 
reaching  consequences. 

Li  Hung  Chang  was  appointed  plenipotentiary  to  nego- 
tiate with  Count  Ito,  and  a  convention  was  signed  by  them 
at  Tien-tsin,  on  April  18,  1885.  It  provided,  first,  that  both 
countries  should  recall  their  troops  from  Korea;  secondly, 
that  no  more  officers  should  be  sent  by  either  country  to  drill 
Korean  soldiers;  and  thirdly,  that  if  at  any  future  time 
either  of  the  parties  to  the  convention  should  decide  to  send 
a  force  to  Korea,  it  must  straightway  inform  the  other.  By 
this  compact  China  acknowledged  that  Japan's  right  to  con- 
trol Korea  was  on  a  level  with  her  own,  and  it  was  hence- 
forth unreasonable  for  the  Peking  authorities  to  speak  of 
Korea  as  a  vassal  state.  For  nine  years  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  Tien-tsin  convention,  peace  prevailed  in  the  Hermit 
Kingdom. 

In  the  spring  of  1894,  however,  the  Tong  Haks,  a  body 
of  religious  reformers,  broke  into  open  rebellion  and  toward 
the  end  of  May  obtained  a  considerable  success  over  the 
troops  of  the  Korean  government.  China  was  at  once 
requested  to  dispatch  a  force  to  save  the  capital,  and  by  the 
io^h  of  June  2,000  Chinese  soldiers  were  encamped  at  Asan, 
a  port  some  distance  to  the  south  of  Seoul.  A  few  Chinese 
men-of-war  were  also  ordered  to  cruise  off  the  Korean  coasts. 
In  pursuance  of  the  terms  of  the  Tien-tsin  convention,  notifi- 
cation of  the  dispatch  of  these  forces  to  Korea  was  given  to 
the  Tokio  government,  which,  having  had  equal  rights  con- 
ceded to  it,  was  resolved  to  exercise  them  with  promptitude 
and  vigor.  Within  fortv-eight  hours  after  the  arrival  of  the 


204  THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND   CHINA 

Chinese  at  Asan,  the  Japanese  had  placed  a  far  superior 
number  of  soldiers  at  Seoul,  and  of  ships  at  Chemulpo.  They 
thus  secured  complete  possession  of  the  capital  and  of  the 
court,  although  both  had  been  in  thorough  sympathy  with 
China.  To  avert  an  insurrection  in  Seoul  it  was  thought 
needful  to  secure  the  person  of  the  King  of  Korea,  and  his 
palace  was  accordingly  captured  by  the  Japanese,  and  the 
ruler  of  the  peninsula  converted  into  their  tool  or  ally.  He 
was  forthwith  required  to  put  his  seal  to  a  document  order- 
ing the  Chinese  troops  who  had  come  at  his  invitation  to 
leave  the  country.  This  seizure  of  the  king's  person  took 
place  on  July  23,  1894. 

China  was  at  that  time  under  the  leadership  of  a  states- 
man of  marked  ability,  the  famous  Li  Hung  Chang,  who, 
from  being  made  viceroy  of  a  province  in  1870,  had  risen 
to  be  the  prime  minister  of  the  empire.  At  the  head  of  the 
empire  was  a  woman,  the  Dowager  Empress  Tsu  Tsi,  who 
had  usurped  the  power  of  the  young  emperor  and  ruled  the 
state.  It  was  to  these  two  people  in  power  that  the  war  was 
due.  The  Dowager  Empress,  blindly  ignorant  of  the  mili- 
tary power  of  the  Japanese,  decided  that  these  "insolent 
pigmies"  deserved  to  be  chastised.  Li,  her  right-hand  man, 
was  of  the  same  opinion.  At  the  last  moment,  indeed, 
doubts  began  to  assail  his  mind,  into  which  came  a  fear  thati 
the  army  and  navy  of  China  were  not  in  shape  to  meet  the 
forces  of  Japan.  But  the  empress  was  resolute.  Her 
sixtieth  birthday  was  at  hand  and  she  proposed  to  celebrate  it 
magnificently;  and  what  better  decorations  could  she  dis- 
play than  the  captured  banners  of  these  insolent  islanders? 
So  it  was  decided  to  present  a  bold  front,  and  instead  of  the 
troops  of  China  being  removed,  reinforcements  were  sent  to 
the  force  at  Asan. 

There   followed    a   startling   event.     On   July  25  three 
Japanese  men-of-war,  cruisin^  in  the  Yellow  Sea,  eame  in 


THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND  CHINA  205 

sight  of  a  transport,  the  Kowshing,  loaded  with  Chinese 
troops  and  convoyed  by  two  ships  of  the  Chinese  navy.  The 
Japanese  admiral  did  not  know  of  the  seizure  of  Seoul  by  the 
land  forces,  but  he  took  it  to  be  his  duty  to  prevent  Chinese 
troops  from  reaching  Korea,  so  he  at  once  attacked  the  war 
ships  of  the  enemy  with  such  effect  that  one  was  sunk,  the 
other  disabled.  Then  he  sent  orders  to  the  officers  of  the 
K&wshing  that  they  should  put  about  and  follow  his  ships. 
This  the  Chinese  generals  refused  to  do.  They  trusted  to 
the  fact  that  they  were  on  a  chartered  British  vessel  and 
that  the  British  flag  flew  over  their  heads.  The  daring 
Japanese  admiral  troubled  his  soul  little  about  this  foreign 
standard,  but  at  once  opened  fire  on  the  transport  and  with 
such  effect  that  in  half  an  hour  it  went  to  the  bottom,  carry- 
ing with  it  twelve  hundred  men.  Only  about  one  hundred 
and  seventy  escaped. 

On  the  same  day  the  Japanese  General  Oshima  left  Seoul 
with  a  small  force  to  attack  the  Chinese  camp,  which  had 
been  transferred  from  Asan  to  Song-hwan,  a  strongly  forti- 
fied position.  The  place  was  -carried  on  July  29  by  a  night 
surprise  with  a  loss  to  the  Chinese  of  500  killed  and  wounded ; 
the  remainder  of  the  force  then  retreating  to  Pingyang,  a 
town  north  of  Seoul,  on  the  main  road  to  China.  These 
encounters  were  followed  by  a  reciprocal  declaration  of  war 
between  China  and  Japan  on  August  i,  1894. 

There  now  ensued  a  lull  in  hostilities,  during  which 
Japan  poured  her  troops  into  Korea,  while  the  Chinese  fleet 
remained  inactive  in  the  harbors  of  Wei-hai-wei  and  Port 
Arthur.  About  the  beginning  of  September  a  Japanese 
force  of  13,000  men  under  General  Nodzu  was  ordered  to 
attack  the  strong  position  occupied  by  the  Chinese  at 
Pingyang.  The  assault  was  delivered  on  May  15,  and  the 
Chinese  were  compelled  to  retreat  with  a  loss  of  2,000  killed, 
in  addition  to  the  wounded  and  prisoners.  The  sturdiness 


206  THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND  CHINA 

of  the  defence  at  certain  points  was  attested  by  the  fact  that 
the  victors  themselves  lost  633  killed,  wounded  and  missing. 
The  capture  of  Pingyang  resulted  in  the  Chinese  evacuation 
of  Korea. 

While  the  fighting  was  taking  place  on  land  at  Pingyang, 
the  Chinese  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Ting,  was 
conveying  troops  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu  River,  the  north- 
western boundary  of  Korea,  where  the  Chinese  were  collect- 
ing a  second  army.  Returning  from  the  fulfillment  of  this 
task,  the  fleet  was  encountered  off  the  island  of  Hai-yun-tao 
on  September  17,  by  a  Japanese  squadron  under  Admiral 
I  to.  The  story  of  this  naval  battle  is  of  such  importance  that 
we  pass  it  by  here  with  the  simple  statement  that  the  Japa- 
nese were  brilliantly  victorious  and  describe  it  in  detail  in 
the  next  chapter. 

The  Japanese,  having  been  reinforced  by  a  considerable 
body  of  soldiers  under  Marshal  Yamagata,  began  their  for- 
ward movement  from  Pingyang  early  in  October,  1894,  and 
on  the  loth  of  the  month  reached  the  Yalu,  where  they 
found  a  considerable  Chinese  army  posted  on  the  northern 
bank  of  the  river.  After  a  merely  nominal  resistance,  how- 
ever, the  Chinese  officers  and  soldiers  abandoned  their  fortifi- 
cations on  October  25  and  26,  thus  allowing  the  Japanese 
to  capture  an  enormous  quantity  of  war  materials,  including 
seventy-four  cannon,  over  4,000  rifles  and  more  than  4,000,000 
rounds  of  ammunition.  While  Marshal  Yamagata  was 
forcing  the  passage  of  the  Yalu,  another  Japanese  army 
under  Marshal  Oyama  had  landed  on  the  Liao-tung,  or 
Regent's  Sword  peninsula,  with  the  view  of  assailing  the 
great  naval  station  of  Port  Arthur.  The  natural  and  arti- 
ficial strength  of  this  place  was  great;  over  300  guns  were 
in  position,  and  the  garrison  numbered  at  least  10,000  men, 
while  the  assailants  did  not  exceed  13,000,  although,  of 
course,  they  were  materially  aided  by  their  fleet. 


THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND   CHINA  207 

The  attack  was  made  by  army  and  fleet  on  the  2ist  of 
November,  the  Chinese  showing  themselves  as  incompetent 
in  the  defence  of  a  fortress  as  in  field  operations.  A  two  days' 
siege  sufficed  the  Japanese  army  to  take  fort  after  fort,  until 
the  whole  place  was  in  their  hands,  the  Chinese  garrison 
fleeing  in  dismay.  From  Port  Arthur  an  advance  was  made' 
until  the  Japanese  forces  were  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great 
Wall,  with  the  soil  and  capital  of  China  not  far  before  them. 

To  return  to  the  narrative  of  naval  events,  we  must  next 
direct  our  attention  to  the  strongly  fortified  stronghold  of 
Wei-hai-wei,  on  the  northern  coast  of  China,  and  opposite 
the  Manchurian  fortress  of  Port  Arthur,  which  the  Japanese 
had  so  brilliantly  won.  What  was  left  intact  of  the  Chinese 
fleet  had  taken  refuge  in  the  harbor  of  Wei-hai-wei,  under 
the  guns  of  its  forts;  and  hither,  near  the  end  of  January, 
1895,  the  victorious  Japanese  fleet  advanced  against  the 
fugitive  ships.  Here  it  was  that  China  made  her  last  strong 
'stand,  the  fleet  fighting  with  a  courage  which  might  have 
turned  the  tide  of  victory  in  China's  favor  if  the  ships  had 
been  well  supported  by  the  forts.  The  latter  did  not  hold 
out  long  against  the  Japanese  attack.  A  force  of  25,000  men 
was  successfully  landed  and  assailed  the  forts  in  the  rear, 
quickly  overcoming  their  landward  defences.  Fort  after 
fort  was  taken  until  only  those  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  port  and  on  the  islands  in  the  harbor  remained  in 
Chinese  hands.  On  February  i  an  assault  in  force  was  made 
on  those  on  the  mainland,  and  in  a  few  hours  they  were  in 
Japanese  hands,  their  defenders  having  lost  heart  and  fled. 

The  work  of  the  fleet  was  not  so  easy.  Booms  com- 
posed of  heavy  timbers  and  steel  hawsers  had  been  stretched 
across  the  harbor  entrance  and  torpedoes  planted  in  the 
waters  about  them,  so  that  any  attempt  to  enter  was  very 
perilous.  In  the  harbor  lay  fifteen  Chinese  war  vessels  and 
thirteen  torpedo-boats.  The  fleet  of  Japan  was  stronger  in 


2oS  THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND   CHINA 

numbers,  comprising  twenty-four  men-of-war  and  sixteen 
torpedo-boats,  but  it  had  very  serious  obstacles  to  overcome 
in  order  to  reach  the  Chinese  ships.  Yet  several  night  attacks 
were  made  by  torpedo-boats,  a  breach  having  been  made  in 
the  boom,  and  great  havoc  was  caused  among  the  Chinese 
ships;  a  number  of  them  being  sunk.  Escape  of  the  fleet 
was  impossible;  it  was  too  closely  watched  from  without 
for  that,  and  it  was  being  gradually  annihilated  by  the  daring 
Japanese  attacks.  As  a  result  Admiral  Ting  felt  that  sur- 
render was  the  only  thing  that  remained,  and  on  February 
12  he  gave  up  his  remaining  ships  and  the  forts  that  con- 
tinued in  Chinese  hands  on  Liu-kung  Island  in  the  harbor. 
That  same  day  he  and  two  other  high  officers  of  the  fleet 
escaped  from  the  probable  wrath  of  the  empress  by  com- 
mitting suicide. 

On  land  the  armies  of  Japan  gained  some  further  sue 
cesses,  capturing  several  Chinese  strongholds.  Among  these 
was  the  important  town  of  New-chv/ang,  where  the  Chinese 
were  in  large  force  and  defended  themselves  with  much 
resolution.  The  Japanese  fleet,  now  supreme  upon  the  sea, 
ended  its  labors  by  the  capture  of  the  Pescadores  or  Fisher 
Islands,  a  small  group  of  islands  lying  between  China  and 
Formosa,  and  the  capture  of  which  gave  her  full  command 
of  the  Chinese  waters,  the  whole  eastern  littoral  of  the  empire 
lying  open  to  her  attacks. 

China  was  now  in  a  perilous  position.  Its  fleet  was  lost, 
its  coast  strongholds  of  Port  Arthur  and  Wei-hai-wei  were 
held  by  the  enemy,  and  its  capital  city  was  threatened  from 
the  latter  place  and  by  the  army  north  of  the  Great  Wall. 
A  continuation  of  the  war  promised  to  bring  about  the 
complete  conquest  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  and  Li  Hung 
Chang,  who  had  been  degraded  from  his  official  rank  in 
consequence  of  the  disasters  to  the  army,  was  now  restored 
to  all  his  honors  and  sent  to  Japan  to  sue  for  peace.  In 


THE  WAR  BETWEEN  JAPAN  AND  CHINA  209 

the  treaty  obtained  China  was  compelled  to  acknowledge 
the  independence  of  Korea,  to  cede  to  Japan  the  island  of 
Formosa  and  the  Pescadores  group,  and  that  part  of 
Manchuria  occupied  by  the  Japanese  army,  including  Port 
Arthur,  also  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  300,000,000  taels  and 
open  seven  new  treaty  ports.  This  treaty  was  not  fully 
carried  out.  The  Russian,  British,  and  French  ministers 
forced  Japan  to  give  up  her  claim  to  the  Liao-tung  peninsula 
and  Port  Arthur,  a  fact  which  led  to  momentous  consequences 
in  later  years.  The  more  immediate  results  were  the  lease 
by  Russia  of  Port  Arthur  and  the  neighboring  port  of  Talien- 
wan,  the  acquirement  by  Great  Britain  under  leasehold  of 
the  harbor  and  town  of  Wei-hai-wei,  and  the  cession  to 
Germany  of  the  port  and  surrounding  district  of  Kiao-chau, 
farther  down  the  coast.  France,  eager  to  take  part  in  this 
pioneer  step  towards  the  partition  of  China,  demanded  and 
obtained  concessions  of  territory  in  the  south,  adjoining  her 
Tndo-China  possessions.  Such  were  the  immediate  results 
of  the  victory  of  Japan.  One  might  say  it  was  a  victory  for 
.the  nations  of  Europe  rather  than  for  the  people  who  did 
the  fighting. 


14 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

The  Battle  of  the  Yalu 

AS    SEEN    BY    AN    EYE-WITNESS. 

Ironclad  Warships  in  Battle — Li  Hung  Chang  and  the  Chinese  Navy — The  Naval 
Force  of  Japan — Admiral  I  to  and  His  Ships — Cruising  in  the  Chinese  Seas — 
Japan  and  China  Meet  on  the  Oceati — Commander  McGiffen's  Stirring  Narra- 
tive— Maneuvering  for  Position — The  Roar  of  the  Guns — Ito  as  a  Great 
Strategist — A  Terrific  Battle — Hand-to-hand  Fighting — Disaster  Follows 
China — Ships  Plunge  Beneath  the  Seas — In  Full  Flight — Japan's  Brilliant 
Victory — McGiffen's  Frightful  Peril — Japan  Mistress  of  the  Eastern  Seas. 

THERE  is  little  in  modern  history  more  interesting  and 
significant  than  the  famous  naval  battle  of  the  Yalu, 
from  the  fact  that  it  formed  the  second  occasion  in 
which  ironclad  fleets  of  modern  type  met  in  battle — the  first 
being  that  in  which  the  Austrians  defeated  the  Italians  at 
Lissa   in    1866.     The   story  of  this  memorable   engagement 
is  here  given,   mainly  taken   from   Commander   McGiffen's 
thrilling  account  of  his  personal  experiences. 

Backward  as  the  Chinese  were  on  land,  they  were  not  so 
on  the  sea.  Li  Hung  Chang  had  vainly  attempted  to  intro- 
duce railroads  into  China,  but  he  had  been  more  successful  in 
regard  to  ships,  and  had  purchased  a  navy  more  powerful 
than  that  of  Japan.  The  heaviest  ships  of  Japan  were 
cruisers,  whose  armor  consisted  of  deck  and  interior  lining 
of  steel.  The  Chinese  possessed  two  powerful  battleships, 
with  i4-inch  steel  armor  and  turrets  defended  with  12 -inch 
armor,  each  carrying  four  1 2-inch  guns.  Both  navies  had- 
the  advantage  of  European  teaching  in  drill,  tactics,  and 
seamanship.  The  Ting  Ymn,  the  Chinese  flagship,  had 


THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  YALU  211 

as  virtual  commander  an  experienced  German  officer  named 
Van  Hanneken;  the  Chen  Yuen,  the  other  big  ironclad, 
was  handled  by  Commander  McGiffen,  formerly  of  the 
United  States  Navy.  Thus  commanded,  it  was  expected 
in  Europe  that  the  superior  strength  of  the  Chinese  ships 
would  ensure  them  an  easy  victory  over  those  of  Japan 
The  event  showed  that  this  was  a  decidedly  mistaken  view 

It  was  the  superior  speed  and  the  large  number  of  rapid- 
fire  guns  of  the  Japanese  vessels  that  gave  them  the  victory. 
The  Chinese  guns  were  mainly  heavy  Krupps  and  Arm- 
strongs. They  had  also  some  machine  guns,  but  only  three 
quick-firers.  The  Japanese,  on  the  contrary,  had  a  few 
heavy  armor-piercing  guns,  but  were  supplied  with  a  large 
number  of  quick-firing  cannon,  capable  of  pouring  out  shells 
in  an  incessant  stream.  Admiral  Ting  and  his  European 
officers  expected  to  come  at  once  to  close  quarters  and  quickly 
destroy  the  thin-armored  Japanese  craft.  But  the  shrewd 
Admiral  Ito,  commander  of  the  fleet  of  Japan,  had  no  inten- 
tion of  being  thus  dealt  with.  The  speed  of  his  craft  enabled 
him  to  keep  his  distance  and  to  distract  the  aim  of  his  foes, 
and  he  proposed  to  make  the  best  of  this  advantage.  Thus 
equipped,  the  two  fleets*  came  together  in  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember, and  an  epoch-making  battle  in  the  history  of  the 
ancient  continent  of  Asia  was  fought. 

On  the  afternoon  of  Sunday,  September  16,  1894,  Admiral 
Ting's  fleet,  consisting  of  n  warships,  4  gunboats,  and  6 
torpedo-boats,  anchored  off  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu  River. 
They  were  there  as  escorts  to  some  transports,  which  went  up 
the  river  to  discharge  their  troops.  Admiral  Ito  had  been 
engaged  in  the  same  work  farther  down  the  coast,  and  early 
on  Monday  morning  came  steaming  towards  the  Yalu  in 
search  of  the  enemy.  Under  him  were,  in  all,  twelve  ships, 
none  of  them  with  heavy  armor,  one  of  them  an  armed 
transport.  The  swiftest  ship  in  the  fleet  was  the  Yoshino, 


2i2  THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  YALU 

capable  of  making  twenty-three  knots,  and  armed  with  44 
quick-firing  Armstrongs,  which  would  discharge  nearly  4,000 
pounds'  weight  of  shells  every  minute.  The  heaviest  guns 
were  long  1 3-inch  cannon,  of  which  four  ships  possessed  one 
each,  protected  by  1 2-inch  shields  of  steel.  Finally,  they 
had  an  important  advantage  over  the  Chinese  in  being  abun- 
dantly supplied  with  ammunition. 

With  this  formidable  fleet  Ito  steamed  slowly  to  the 
northwestward.  Early  on  Monday  morning  he  was  off  the 
island  of  Hai-yun-tao.  At  7  A.  M.  the  fleet  began  steaming 
northeastward.  It  was  a  fine  autumn  morning.  The  sun 
shone  brightly,  and  there  was  just  enough  of  a  breeze  to 
ripple  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  long  line  of  warships 
cleaving  their  way  through  the  blue  waters,  all  bright  with 
white  paint,  the  chrysanthemum  of  Japan  shining  like  a 
golden  shield  on  every  bow,  and  the  same  emblem  flying 
in  red  and  white  from  every  masthead,  presented  a  grand 
spectacle.  Some  miles  away  to  port  rose  the  rocky  coast  and 
the  blue  hills  of  Manchuria,  dotted  with  many  an  island  and 
showing  here  and  there^a  little  bay  with  its  fishing  villages. 
On  the  other  side,  the  waters  of  the  wide  Korean  Gulf  stretched 
to  an  unbroken  horizon.  Towards  *i  o'clock  the  hills  at  the 
head  of  the  gulf  began  to  rise.  Ito  had  in  his  leading  ship, 
the  Yoshino,  a  cruiser  that  would  have  made  a  splendid 
"scout.  In  any  European  navy  she  would  have  been  steaming 
some  miles  ahead  of  her  colleagues,  perhaps  with  another 
quick  ship  between  her  and  the  fleet  to  pass  on  her  signals. 
Ito,  however,  seems  to  have  done  no  scouting,  but  to  have 
kept  his  ships  in  single  line  ahead,  with  a  small  interval 
between  the  van  and  the  main  squadron.  At  half -past  eleven 
smoke  was  seen  far  away  on  the  starboard  bow,  the  bearing 
being  east-northeast.  It  appeared  to  come  from  a  number  of 
steamers  in  line,  on  the  horizon.  The  course  was  altered  and 
the  speed  increased.  Ito  believed  that  he  had  the  Chinese 


THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  YALU  213- 

fleet  in  front  of  him.  He  was  right.  The  smoke  was  that 
of  Ting's  ironclads  and  cruisers  anchored  in  line,  with  steam 
up,  outside  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu. 

On  Monday  morning  the  Chinese  crews  had  been  exer- 
cised at  their  guns,  and  a  little  before  noon,  while  the  cooks 
were  busy  getting  dinner  ready,  the  lookout  men  at  several  of 
the  mastheads  began  to  call  out  that  they  saw  the  smoke  of 
a  large  fleet  away  on  the  horizon  to  the  southwest.  Admiral 
Ting  was  as  eager  for  the  fight  as  his  opponents.  At  once  he 
signaled  to  his  fleet  to  weigh  anchor,  and  a  few  minutes  later 
ran  up  the  signal  to  clear  for  action. 

A  similar  signal  was  made  by  Admiral  I  to  half  an  hour 
later,  as  his  ships  came  in  sight  of  the  Chinese  line  of  battle. 
The  actual  moment  was  five  minutes  past  noon,  but  it  was 
not  until  three-quarters  of  an  hour  later  that  the  fleets  had 
closed  sufficiently  near  for  the  fight  to  begin  at  long  range. 
This  three-quarters  of  an  hour  was  a  time  of  anxious  and 
eager  expectation  for  both  Chinese  and  Japanese.  Com- 
mander McGiffen  of  the  Chen  Yuen  has  given  a  striking 
description  of  the  scene : 

"Monday,  the  memorable  i;th  of  September,  was  a 
beautiful  day,"  says  Commander  McGiffen  in  his  account  of 
the  day's  events;  "  a  light  breeze  gently  ruffled  the  surface  of 
the  water.  The  forenoon  passed  as  usual.  At  9.15  each 
ship  went  to  general  quarters,  cleared  for  action,  and  for  an 
hour  exercised  the  crews  at  the  guns,  no  one  dreaming  that 
the  results  of  our  training  were  so  soon  to  be  tested.  All 
boats  had  been  left  behind,  save  one  six-oared  gig  for  each 
vessel.  In  case  of  disaster,  quarter  was  not  expected,  nor 
was  surrender  contemplated. 

"  The  fate  of  the  ships-  was  to  be  the  fate  of  the  crew. 
The  heavy  steel  gun-shields,  one  inch  thick,  and  over  thirty 
feet  in  diameter,  which  covered  the  two  pairs  of  3<D.5-centi- 
•OQeter  (12. 2 -inch)  Krupps  on  the  ironclads  had  been  removed. 


THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  YALU 

All  unnecessary  woodwork,  rigging,  etc.,  had  been  taken  away, 
the  side  wings  of  the  bridge  cut  off,  all  handrails  and  ladders 
removed,  and  rope  or  wire  life-lines  and  'Jacob's  ladders' 
substituted  where  possible.  The  ships  had  been  painted  an 
'invisible  gray/  Hammocks  were  placed  as  a  small  protec- 
tion to  the  men  at  the  quick-firing  guns,  and  within  the  super- 
structure sand-bags  were  piled  along  the  sides  about  three 
feet  deep  and  four  feet  high.  Lying  inside  of  these,  on  deck, 
were  kept  some  dozens  of  loo-pound  shot  and  shell  for  the 
6-inch  guns,  to  promote  quick  service.  Coal  in  bags  was 
also  utilized  for  protection  when  possible. 

"When  the  bugles  sounded  action,  but  little  remained 
to  be  done  save  to  lower  to  the  deck  the  ventilators  or  wind- 
sails,  to  close  the  scuttles,  water-tight  doors,  etc.,  and  go  to 
stations.  The  Chen  Yuen's  forenoon  routine  had  been 
carried  out  and  the  cooks  were  preparing  the  midday  meal 
when  the  smoke  from  the  enemy's  ships  was  sighted  by  the 
lookout  men  at  the  masthead ;  and  before  even  a  signal  could 
be  made  from  the  flagship  the  bugles  throughout  the  fleet 
were  sounding  merrily  the  'officers'  call  and  *  action.' 

"  In  far  less  time  than  it  takes  to  read  these  lines  signals 
had  been  made  from  the  Ting  Yuen  to  *  weigh  immediately,' 
and  never  were  cables  shortened  in  and  anchors  weighed 
more  speedily.  The  old  Chao  Yung  and  Yang  Wei,  being 
always  longer  in  weighing  anchor,  were  left  astern.  As  the 
two  fleets  approached  each  other,  officers  and  men  eagerly 
strained  their  eyes  toward  the  magnificent  fleet  of  their  coun- 
try's hereditary  foe,  and  on  all  sides  there  were  animation 
and  confidence. 

"The  Japanese  formed  into  two  squadrons,  a  flying 
squadron  of  four  ships  and  a  principal  squadron  of  six  ships, 
with  a  gunboat  and  a  converted  merchantman  inside. 

"The  twenty-four  ships,  trim  and  fresh  in  their  paint 
and  their  bright  new  bunting,  and  gay  with  fluttering  signal 


THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  YALU  215 

flags,  presented  such  a  holiday  aspect  that  one  found  diffi- 
culty in  realizing  that  they  were  not  there  simply  for  a  friendly 
meeting.  On  the  Chen  Yuen  dark-skinned  men  with  queues 
tightly  coiled  around  their  heads  and  with  arms  bared  to  the 
elbow  clustered  along  the  decks  in  groups  at  the  guns,  waiting 
impatiently.  Sand  was  sprinkled  on  the  decks,  and  more 
was  kept  handy  against  the  time  when  they  might  become 
slippery.  Here  and  there  a  man  lay  flat  on  deck  with  a  charge 
of  powder  in  his  arms  waiting  to  spring  up  and  pass  it  on 
when  it  would  be  wanted. 

"  The  fleets  closed  on  each  other  rapidly.  My  crew  was 
silent.  The  sub-lieutenant  in  the  military  foretop  was  taking 
sextant  angles  and  announcing  the  range.  As  each  range 
was  called  the  men  at  the  guns  would  lower  the  sight  bars, 
each  gun  captain,  lanyard  in  hand,  keeping  his  gun  trained 
on  the  enemy.  Through  the  ventilators  could  be  heard 
the  beats  of  the  steam  pumps,  for  all  the  lines  of  hose  were 
joined  up  and  spouting  water,  so  that  in  case  of  fire  no  time 
would  be  lost.  The  range  was  about  four  miles  and  decreas- 
ing fast.  '  Six  thousand  meters. '  '  Five  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred.' 'Six  hundred.'  'Five  hundred.'  'Five  thousand 
four  hundred.' 

"  The  crisis  was  rapidly  approaching.  Every  man's  nerves 
were  in  a  state  of  tension,  which  was  greatly  relieved  as  a 
huge  cloud  of  white- smoke  belching  from  the  Ting  Yuen's 
starboard  barbette  'opened  the  ball.' 

"Just  as  the  projectile  threw  up  a  column  of  white  water 
a  little  short  of  the  Yoshino  a  roar  from  the  Chen  Yuen's 
battery  seconded  the  flagship's  motion.  It  "was  exactly 
12.20  P.  M.,  and  the  range  as  found  on  the  Chen  Yuen  was 
5,200  meters.  On  our  side  the  firing  now  became  general 
from  the  main  batteries,  but  it  was  about  five  minutes  before 
the  Japanese  replied. 

"As  they  opened  fire  the  Chinese  quick-firing  Hotchkiss 


216  THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  YALU 

and  Maxim-Nordenfelt  3  and .  6  pounders  joined  in,  and 
thenceforward  the  conflict  was  almost  incessant.  Like  ours, 
the  enemy's  first  shot  fell  short;  but  with  an  exultant  chuckle 
we  noted  that  a  shot  from  one  of  our  12 -inch  guns  had  struck 
one  of  the  Japanese  leading  ships.  The  bridge  of  the  Chen 
Yuen,  although  some  thirty  feet  above  the  water,  was  very 
soon  soaked,  as  was  indeed  the  entire  exposed  surface  of  the 
engaged  side,  by  spray  thrown  up  by  line  shots  that  struck 
the  water  a  little  short.  Many  of  the  men  at  the  guns  were 
wet  through.  Every  one  in  the  conning  tower  had  his  ears 
stopped  with  cotton,  yet  the  din  made  by  projectiles  rattling 
up  against  the  outside  of  its  ic-inch  armor  was  a  serious 
annoyance. 

"  During  the  early  part  of  the  engagement  the  Tsi  Yuen, 
with  its  faint-hearted  commander,  Fong,  had  bolted  and 
made  for  Port  Arthur.  Almost  at  once  the  outrageous 
example  of  Captain  Fong  was  followed  by  the  commander 
of  the  Kwan  Chia,  who  turned  tail  and  later  ran  his  ship 
aground  on  a  reef  outside  of  Talien-wan. 

"Our  fleet  was  now  reduced  to  eight  vessels.  As  the 
Japanese  fleet  approached  it  steamed  along  our  front  from 
left  to  right,  the  principal  squadron  at  close  range,  the  flying 
squadron  further  away.  The  latter  on  reaching  our  right 
flank  turned  it  and  poured  in  a  heavy  cross  fire  on  the  extreme 
wing,  the  Chao  Yung  and  Yang  Wei  receiving  most  of  it. 
These  two  old-fashioned  cruisers  were  soon  set  on  fire  and 
rendered  useless. 

"As  a  forlorn  hope  the  ill-fated  vess.els  made  for  the 
nearest  land,  seeing  which,  the  Japanese  converted  merchant- 
man Saikio  made  for  them.  The  batteries  of  the  ironclads 
were  trained  on  the  Saikio,  and  two  Chinese  torpedo-boats 
that  had  been  inside  the  Yalu  River  at  the  beginning  of  the 
engagement  came  out  to  the  rescue  of  the  burning  Chao  Yung 
<md  Yang  Wei,  the  Saikio  then  abandoning  the  pursuit. 


THE  BATTLE    OF  THE   YALU.  217 

"  By  this  time  the  flying  squadron  had  altered  course 
sixteen  points  to  port  and  were  returning,  evidently  to  succor 
the  gunboat  Akagi,  which  was  in  a  sad  plight,  having  pluckily 
engaged  us  at  pretty  close  range,  and  was  now  steering  wildly, 
her  mainmast  gone,  her  commander  killed  and  her  battery 
disabled. 

"  It  was  now  about  2  P.  M.  The  Japanese  flagship  leading 
the  principal  squadron  had  reached  our  right  wing  and,  flank- 
ing it,  steamed  down  again  in  the  opposite  course.  The 
Hiyei,  last  in  line,  was  almost  ahead  of  the  Ting  Yuen,  having 
already  been  engaged  by  the  Chih  Yuen  on  our  flagship's 
left.  Her  distance  from  her  next  in  line  ahead  was  increas- 
ing, and  her  captain  presumably  seeing  that  his  slow  old  ship 
could  not  keep  up  with  the  rest,  and  being  already  on  fire, 
fearing  to  continue  on,  and  receiving  the  fire  of  both  ironclads 
and  of  the  Ting  Yuen,  Sai  Yuen,  and  Ching  Yuen,  boldly 
decided  to  make  a  short  cut  between  the  two  ironclads  and 
rejoin  his  comrades  on  the  other  side.  This  was  splendidly 
done. 

"  As  his  ship  passed  between  our  two  big  ships  we  fired 
into  him  point-blank.  It  was  impossible  to  miss,  and  flying 
material  showed  that  we  did  not.  Had  we  used  shell,  she 
would  have  been  '  done  for.'  From  this  time  the  Chinese 
formation  was  broken  into  an  irregular  group.  Bearing 
down  on  us  on  the  one  hand  were  the  ships  of  the  principal 
squadron  '  in  line  ahead,'  keeping  perfect  station,  while  on 
the  opposite  side  were  those  of  the  flying  squadron.  We 
were  thus  between  two  fires. 

"  The  Japanese  now  seemed  to  ignore  the  four  smaller 
Chinese  vessels  ;  and  the  five  ships  of  its  principal  squadron 
steamed  around  our  two  ironclads,  pouring  in  a  storm  of  shell. 
Time  and  again  fire  broke  out.  During  the  confusion  of  our 
line  consequent  upon  being  out-manoeuvred  the  Chih  Yuen 
passed  under  ©ur  stern  and  joined  the  Lai  Yuen  and  sur- 


2i8  THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  YALU 

viving  ships  of  the  right  wing.  The  Ping  Yuen  and  Kwang 
Ping,  now  coming  up,  threatened  the  Akagi  and  Saikio,  but 
signals  were  made  on  the  Matsushima,  and  the  flying  squadron 
manoeuvred  to  cover  the  endangered  vessels. 

"About  this  time  the  Chih  Yuen  boldly,  if  somewhat 
foolhardily,  bore  down  on  the  flying  squadron's  line.  Just 
what  happened  no  one  seems  to  know,  but  apparently  she 
was  struck  below  the  water-line  by  a  heavy  shell.  She  plunged 
bows  first  into  the  depths,  and  righting  herself  as  she  sank, 
carried  down  all  hands. 

"At  about  3  o'clock  the  Matsushima  closed  upon  the  Chen 
Yuen  to  about  1,700  meters,  and  we  fired  one  of  our  shells 
with  a  bursting  charge  of  ninety  pounds  of  powder  into  her, 
causing  great  damage.  At  5.30  p.  M.  the  enemy  withdrew, 
leaving  us  completely  exhausted  of  ammunition  save  for  three 
shots  left  in  the  guns." 

Commander  McGiffen  had  several  narrow  escapes.  When 
the  lacquered  woodwork  on  the  forecastle  of  the  Chen  Yuen 
caught  fire,  and  the  men  declined  to  go  forward  and  put  it 
out  unless  an  officer  went  with  them,  he  led  the  party.  He 
was  stooping  down  to  move  something  on  the  forecastle, 
when  a  shot  passed  between  his  arms  and  legs,  wounding  both 
his  wrists.  At  the  same  time  he  was  struck  down  by  an 
explosion  near  him.  When  he  recovered  from  the  shock,  he 
found  himself  in  a  terrible  position.  He  was  lying  wounded 
on  the  forecastle,  and  full  in  front  of  him  he  saw  the  muzzle 
of  one  of  the  heavy  barbette  guns  come  sweeping  round, 
rise,  and  then  sink  a  little,  as  the  gunners  trained  it  on  a 
Japanese  ship,  never  noticing  that  he  lay  just  below  the  line 
of  fire.  It  was  in  vain  to  try  to  attract  their  attention.  In 
another  minute  he  would  have  been  caught  in  the  fiery  blast. 
With  a  great  effort  he  rolled  himself  over  the  edge  of  the  fore- 
castle, dropping  on  to  some  rubbish  on  the  main  deck,  and 
hearing  the  roar  of  the  gun  as  he  fell. 


THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  YALU  219 

When  Ito  ceased  fire,  the  Chen  Yuen  had  just  three  pro- 
jectiles left  for  her  heavy  guns.  If  he  had  kept  on  for  a  few 
•minutes  longer  the  two  Chinese  ships  would  have  been  at 
his  mercy.  Just  why  he  retired  has  never  been  clearly 
explained.  Probably  exhaustion  of  his  crew  and  the  perils 
of  a  battle  at  night  with  such  antagonists  had  much  to  do 
with  it.  The  next  morning  the  Chinese  fleet  had  disap- 
peared. It  had  lost  four  ships  in  the  fight,  two  had  taken 
to  flight,  and  one  ran  ashore  after  the  battle  and  was  blown 
up.  Two  of  the  Japanese  ships  were  badly  damaged,  but 
none  were  lost,  while  their  losses  in  killed  and  wounded  were 
much  less  than  those  of  the  Chinese.  An  important  lesson 
from  the  battle  was  the  danger  of  too  much  woodwork  in 
ironclad  ships,  and  another  was  the  great  value  in  naval 
warfare  of  rapid-firing  guns.  But  the  most  remarkable  char- 
acteristic of  the  battle  of  the  Yalu  was  that  it  took  place 
between  two  nations  which,  had  the  war  broken  out  forty 
years  earlier,  would  have  done  their  fighting  with  fleets  of 
junks  and  weapons  a  century  old. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

Heroic  Exploits  of  the  Japanese 

Japanese  Heroism — A  Daring  Exploit — The  Winning  of  the  Gate — A  First-Class 
Private — Repairing  a  Gun  Under  Fire — Carrying  Dispatches  Under  Difficul- 
ties— How  Wada  Reached  Headquarters — In  Search  of  a  Ford — A  Bird's- 
eye  Outlook — The  Japanese  Captain  and  Chinese  Baby. 

THE  war  between  Japan  and  China  in  1894-95  was  nota- 
ble in  teaching  the  world  that  the  Japanese  are  a 
people  who  may  justly  claim  kinship  with  the  world's 
bravest.  In  addition  to  the  remarkable  skill  in  the  art  of 
war  displayed  by  them,  and  their  courage  when  dashing  on 
the  enemy  or  enduring  the  hottest  fire,  there  were  abundant 
deeds  of  personal  heroism,  which  demonstrated  that  the 
little  islanders  did  not  need  the  example  of  their  fellows 
for  intrepidity,  but  were  generously  supplied  with  individual 
valor.  Numerous  examples  of  this  might  be  given  from 
authentic  records,  and  while  we  have  not  space  for  all  that 
could  be  adduced,  we  cannot  resist  the  temptation  to  give  a 
few  striking  instances  of  heroic  daring  and  patriotic  devotion. 
For  example,  it  would  not  be  easy  to  offer  a  more  notable 
instance  of  unflinching  courage  than  that  of 

HARADA  JUKICHI  AND  THE  HYONMU  GATE 

The  attack  on  the  strongly  walled  castle-town  of  Phyong- 
yang  was  made  on  September  15,  1894.  We  shall  speak  here 
especially  of  the  exploits  of  the  Eighteenth  Regiment  of  the 
Third  Division.  After  a  most  valorous  struggle,  this  regi- 
ment succeeded  in  capturing  all  three  redoubts  north  of  the 

220 


HEROIC  EXPLOITS    OF   THE  JAPANESE.  221 

castle.  The  enemy  retreated,  entering  within  the  castle 
walls,  whence  they  shot  from  loopholes  or  from  the  towers 
above  the  gates.  Here  the  Japanese  fire  was  of  little  or  no 
avail,  the  enemy  being  perfectly  protected  by  the  massive 
ramparts,  whence  their  fire  was  very  galling.  This  was 
particularly  the  case  at  the  Hyonmu  Gate,  on  the  brow  of  a 
very  deep  slope,  which  was  most  ably  and  fiercely  defended. 
The  troops  under  Colonel  Sato  seemed  unable  to  do  anything, 
and  the  casualties  were  beginning  to  grow  very  numerous, 
not  a  little  disheartening  the  attacking  columns.  Major 
Moji  Watari,  with  his  battalion,  now  began  to  approach  the 
gate  from  the  north  side.  If  only  a  corner  could  be  broken 
down,  he  thought,  or  if  a  breach  could  be  made  in  the  wall,  it 
would  be  comparatively  easy  to  rush  in,  repel  the  defenders, 
and  thus  put  a  stop  to  the  terrible  loss  of  life  in  the  Japanese 
ranks.  Calling  up  Captain  Atarashi  Yasumasa,  he  proposed 
that  a  violent  attack  should  be  made  at  one  corner  of  the 
gate,  which  formed  the  base  of  a  hollow  square,  the  adjoining 
walls  being  the  sides.  In  some  angle  thereabouts  a  breech 
must  be  made,  he  declared. 

The  order  was  passed  on  to  Lieutenant  Mimura  Ikutaro, 
who  accepted  the  task  with  alacrity.  With  a  handful  of  men 
he  rushed  courageously  forward,  indifferent  to  the  furious 
rain  of  bullets,  and  reached  the  base  of  the  wall.  Here  he 
would  at  once  have  climbed  up  the  solid  stones  forming  the 
masonry  of  the  wall,  had  not  Harada  Jukichi,  a  second-class 
private  belonging  to  the  lieutenant's  sub-company,  begged 
to  be  permitted  to  scale  the  wall  first  on  account  of  the  great 
personal  danger  of  the  enterprise.  The  lieutenant's  life, 
he  urged,  was  of  greater  value  than  his  own.  All  this  passed 
more  quickly  than  it  takes  time  to  write  it  down,  and  the 
next  thing  was  the  surprising  sight  of  Harada  scaling  the 
wall,  closely  followed  by  the  lieutenant  and  a  few  others. 
In  a  minute  the  task  was  over  and  Harada  on  top  of  the  ram- 


222  HEROIC  EXPLOITS  OF  THE  JAPANESE 

parts,  the  Chinese  appearing  to  be  paralyzed  by  the  reckless 
audacity  of  the  feat.  Taking  advantage  of  their  confusion, 
Harada  leaped  into  the  midst  of  the  crowd  of  soldiers,  using 
his  bayonet  with  herculean  force,  he  himself  being  a  man  of 
unusual  strength  and  activity.  Lieutenant  Mimura  followed 
hard  after,  fighting  with  his  naked  sword  and  cutting  down 
all  opposition.  In  an  instant  they  were  down  on  the  other 
side  of  the  gate,  while  some  of  Harada 's  comrades  were  still 
fighting  on  the  wall  and  others  were  coming  up.  The  gate 
had  been  barricaded  by  logs  and  large  stones,  and  these  had 
to  be  removed  before  ingress  or  egress  was  possible.  In 
consideration  of  his  bravery,  Lieutenant  Mimura  gave  Harada 
the  honor  of  flinging  open  the  portals,  and  while  the  others 
kept  up  a  steady  fire  on  the  enemy  about  them,  or  else  fought 
hand  to  hand,  Harada  worked  with  a  will,  and  shortly  had 
the  barricade  removed.  The  next  thing  was  to  break  the 
huge  iron  lock,  and  this  he  effected  with  a  large  stone.  A 
wrench,  a  great  pull,  a  push,  and  the  massive  portals  of  the 
great  gate  were  thrown  open,  the  impatient  Japanese  outside 
pouring  through  with  irresistible  force,  like  some  swift  moun- 
tain torrent.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  end;  the  Japa- 
nese were  within  the  walls;  the  fortress  fell  and  the  great 
battle  was  decided. 

That  Harada  Jukichi  performed  a  most  valorous  deed  is 
true ;  but  that  the  fifteen  gallant  men  who  followed  the  lieu- 
tenant also  merit  the  highest  praise,  is  no  less  true.  Two  of 
these  men  were  sergeants,  and  were  killed  in  the  tower  above 
the  gate,  fighting  against  overwhelming  odds.  The  others 
had  a  most  fierce  combat  with  the  foe,  and  it  was  little  short 
of  miraculous  that  they  escaped  being  killed  to  a  man.  This 
can  be  attributed  only  to  the  astonishment  of  the  defending 
Chinese,  who  were  unaccustomed  to  dashing  gallantry  of  such 
a  kind.  Yet,  as  they  awoke  to  a  realization  of  what  had  been 
done,  they  fought  determinedly  with  the  handful  of  heroe*.. 


HEROIC  EXPLOITS  OF  THE  JAPANESE  223 

inflicting  on  most  of  them  scars  which  the  survivors  will  carry 
to  their  dying  day.  Fearing  that  the  ever-increasing  num- 
bers of  their  foes  might  dishearten  his  men,  Lieutenant 
Mimura  cheered  them  on  to  still  greater  exertions.  To 
Sergeant  Kakishima  Yataro  he  gave  the  order  to  bring  up 
the  rest  of  the  sub-company,  for  the  men  had  not  followed 
owing  to  the  impossibility  of  hearing  the  lieutenant's  com- 
mands in  the  thunder  of  cannon  and  roll  of  musketry;  the 
young  officer,  moreover,  told  the  sergeant  to  inform  Captain 
Atarashi  that  the  gate  had  been  carried  by  storm.  All  this 
was  said  and  done  while  the  fight  went  furiously  on.  Harada 
Jukichi  had  the  distinction  of  being  selected  to  open  the  gate 
because  the  lieutenant  desired  in  some  measure  to  reward 
him  for  his  intrepid  obedience;  and  while  the  bold  man  was 
doing  this,  the  lieutenant  ordered  the  others  to  fire  as  rapidly 
and  as  steadily  as  possible  on  the  closing-in  Chinese,  in  order 
that  Harada  might  do  his  work  undisturbed.  The  removal 
of  the  barricade  was  no  light  task,  yet  was  promptly  and 
dextrously  accomplished,  and  the  key  of  the  citadel  fell  thus 
into  the  hands  of  the  victorious  Japanese. 

The  remaining  narratives  need  no  special  introduction. 
We  offer  them  simply  with  head-lines  suggestive  of  their 
character 

A  FIRST-CLASS  PRIVATE 

When  the  Seventh  Company  of  the  Twelfth  Regiment 
belonging  to  the  right  wing  of  Major-General  Oshima's  com- 
bined brigade  reached  the  vicinity  of  Ansong-do,  they  sud- 
denly fell  in  with  the  enemy  in  the  village  by  the  river.  It 
was  then  still  quite  an  hour  before  dawn — 3  o'clock,  to  be 
precise — and  the  darkness  intense.  Considerable  confusion 
resulted  from  this  pitchy  darkness,  numbers  of  men  losing 
all  connection  with  the  files  to  which  they  belonged.  Nasu 
Torafusa,  a  first-class  private  of  this  Seventh  Company,  by 


224  HEROIC  EXPLOITS   OF    THE  JAPANESE. 

dint  of  repeated  callings,  managed  to  get  some  thirty  men 
together ;  and  this  little  body  he  ordered  to  stop  on  the  road 
to  the  village  of  Keliliungtong  whence  the  Chinese  were  now 
running  out.  Lieutenant-Colonel  Taketa  then  tried,  with 
his  aides,  to  get  the  scattered  men  together.  Sending  his 
voice  out  into  the  darkness,  he  asked  if  any  officer  were 
thereabouts.  No  one  replied.  Then  the  lieutenant-colonel 
cried  a^ain,  "  Is  there  no  non-commissioned  officer  or  first- 

o 

class  private  within  hearing  ?  "  This  elicited  a  response  from 
Nasu  :  "  Yes,  here  am  I,  Nasu  Torafusa,  a  first-class  private." 

Rejoiced  at  finding  some  one  in  whom  he  could  trust, 
the  regimental  commander  told  Nasu  to  use  his  men  in 
bringing  the  right  and  left  wings  together,  making  them 
converge  so  as  to  deliver  a  combined  attack  on  the  enemy. 
Nasu  at  once  set  about  this,  acting  rapidly  and  intelligently, 
until  he  came  across  Sergeant  Amano,  to  whom  he  relinquished 
the  task.  Nasu  was  now  called  up  to  be  an  orderly  and  go 
with  a  message  to  the  commander  of  the  Third  Battalion. 
He  was  bidden  say  that  an  attack  should  be  made  all  along 
the  line  at  dawn.  Just  as  he  was  about  to  start  on  this 
mission,  a  loud  cry  of  "Charge!"  was  heard,  and  the  men  of 
the  other  companies  were  dimly  seen  advancing  at  double- 
quick.  Nasu  joined  these  forces  and  charged  with  them 
into  the  enemy's  earthworks,  but  not  before  he  had  managed 
to  send  on  the  message  to  the  Third  Battalion. 

At  dawn  the  whole  Japanese  line  bore  down  on  the 
enemy,  and  when  the  Chupalli  high-ground  was  reached,  the 
troops  were  exposed  to  a  fierce  fire  from  the  enemy's  entrench- 
ments about  Songhwan.  Nasu  led,  encouraging  his  com- 
rades to  energetic  action,  giving  them  as  he  did  so  the  proper 
range  and  telling  them  how  to  sight  their  weapons.  Just 
at  this  critical  moment,  a  comrade  had  some  mishap  with 
his  gun;  Nasu  lent  his  companion  his  own  weapon,  took 
the  disabled  gun  himself  and  in  this  rain  of  bullets  calmly 


HEROIC  EXPLOITS  OF  THE  JAPANESE  225 

went  to  work  to  put  the  gun  in  order  with  the  tools  he  carried. 
His  skilled  hands  promptly  repaired  the  damage  in  the  breech, 
and  then  he  handed  back  the  gun  to  its  owner,  reclaiming 
his  own  weapon  and  continuing  to  fire  as  calmly  and  steadily 
as  if  at  the  butts.  The  men  could  not  thereafter  say  too 
much  in  praise  of  his  hardihood  and  coolness  under  fire. 

THE  ADVENTURES  OF  WADA  SHOTARO 

In  the  Seventh  Company  of  the  Twenty-first  Regiment, 
which  formed  part  of  the  Sangnyong  branch  under  Major- 
General  Tatsumi  in  the  advance  on  Phongyong,  was  Wada 
Shotaro,  a  first-class  private.  On  September  9  the  column 
reached  Nyongtong,  from  which  place  on  to  Kwanchangka  ir. 
Phyong-an-do,  which  was  made  on  September  n,  Wada  and 
his  company  marched  on  the  left  of  the  column  as  a  guard 
Lieutenant  Kochi  Nobuhiko,  of  the  Fifth  Company,  way 
about  sending  in  the  report  of  his  reconnaissance  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Namkang  (on  the  upper  Taidong),  which 
he  had  made  by  order  of  the  division  commander;  and  on 
hearing  this  Wada  requested  that  he  might  be  selected  as 
messenger  to  carry  the  report.  Chinese  were  everywhere,  and 
the  treacherous  Koreans  would  be  sure  to  do  a  solitary  soldier 
some  injury  if  possible ;  but  in  the  face  of  all  such  perils  Wada 
cheerfully  volunteered,  and  had  the  pleasure  of  being  selected 
for  this  adventurous  service.  Just  where  the  staff:  was, 
nobody  knew,  so  it  behooved  the  messenger  to  be  extremely 
cautious  and  keep  his  eyes  open.  He  first  changed  his  dress 
for  that  of  a  Korean,  and  then  started  off  with  an  interpreter, 
Koda  Hyoji  by  name.  There  being  no  ferry-boat  in  the 
tributary  of  the  Taidong,  the  two  men  swam  across,  carrying 
their  clothing  on  their  heads.  Passing  through  several 
unknown  districts,  they  traversed  the  opposite  range  of 
lofty  hills,  and  the  next  morning  at  2  A.  M.  (the  i2th) 
branched  off  from  the  main  road  to  Chungwha,  taking 
*i 


226  HEROIC  EXPLOITS  OF  THE  JAPANESE 

the  direction  of  Shangwon.  It  was  still  pitch-dark  and  no 
one  astir  of  whom  they  might  make  inquiries  about  the  road. 
They  turned  into  a  millet-field  for  a  brief  sleep,  and  just  then 
narrowly  escaped  being  discovered  by  a  number  of  Chinese 
horsemen  passing  by.  At  7  A.  M.  they  reached  Shangwon 
and,  avoiding  as  much  as  possible  any  conversation  with  the 
natives,  pressed  on  towards  Kantongpa.  The  interpreter 
now  grew  sick,  and  so  ill  did  he  appear  that  the  two  men 
had  great  difficulty  in  reaching  Hwangju,  where  there  was  a 
Japanese  commissariat-station.  Here  the  sick  man  was  left, 
Wada  determining  to  press  on  alone.  After  getting  all  the 
information  obtainable  concerning  the  route  to  be  taken, 
the  brave  fellow  started  off,  walked  all  the  night  through, 
and  at  10  A.  M.  of  the  following  day  reached  Shipyipho  on 
the  Taidong.  It  was  now  flood-tide,  so  Wada  was  com- 
pelled to  wait  until  the  ebb  at  4  p.  M.,  when  he  crossed  the 
stream  with  the  aid  of  some  engineers  belonging  to  the  Japa- 
nese forces.  The  road  then  led  to  Wulkang,  but  was  exces- 
sively miry  and  full  of  ruts,  so  that  his  progress  was  painfully 
slow.  Being  unacquainted  with  the  language,  he  experienced 
much  trouble  in  asking  the  route  and  was  repeatedly  led 
out  of  his -way.  At  last  at  dawn  of  the  i4th  of  September 
he  reached  a  village,  where  he  inquired  in  writing  the  road 
to  the  staff-quarters.  Unfortunately  their  replies  were  unin- 
telligible; all  that  he  could  learn  was  that  the  quarters  had 
been  removed  to  Pongshan,  whither  he  now  shaped  his 
course.  Overcome  with  fatigue  and  his  two  nights  without 
sleep,  he  was  compelled  to  take  a  short  rest  in  a  glen  of  a  hill 
he  was  crossing,  and  there  he  ate  the  last  morsels  of  food 
he  had  with  him.  After  a  nap  of  two  hours'  duration,  the 
weary  man  took  the  highway  and  by  dint  of  following  the 
track  of  the  horses  and  vehicles  that  had  passed,  reached 
Pongshan  at  noon.  There  a  new  disappointment  awaited 
him,  as  he  was  told  that  the  staff  had  gone  on  to  Shinhung- 


HEROIC  EXPLOITS  OF  THE  JAPANESE  227 

tong.  Once  more  resuming  his  journey,  Wada  at  last  had 
the  delight  of  handing  in  the  precious  report  at  6.30  p.  M.  of 
that  day.  The  staff  officers  praised  him  for  what  he  had 
done  and  asked  various  questions  about  the  condition  of  the 
Sangnyong  column,  the  transportation  of  provisions,  etc. 
They  told  him  to  stay  where  he  was  until  communication 
should  be  re-established  with  the  Sangnyong  column ;  but  as 
the  attack  on  Phyongyang  was  settled  for  the  next  day, 
Wada  refused  this  kindly  proposal,  stating  that  he  was  quite 
able  to  keep  up  with  the  rest.  At  2  A.  M.  the  following 
morning,  camp  was  broken.  In  spite  of  his  necessarily  great 
weariness,  Wada  marched  with  the  van.  The  sound  of 
heavy  firing  was  now  heard  in  the  direction  of  Phyongyang: 
the  great  battle  had  evidently  begun.  At  8  A.  M.  the  men 
with  whom  was  Wada,  reached  Pehsan,  about  2,000  meters 
northwest  of  the  castle.  There  he  joined  with  the  foremost 
bands  and  was  a  prominent  figure  in  the  storm  of  shot  and 
shell.  Between  .himself  and  his  comrades  there  was  the 
river,  separating  them  from  the  castle.  Both  banks  of  the 
stream  were  nothing  more  than  swamps,  through  which  nc 
one  might  hope  to  pass.  The  Japanese  here  were  moreover 
exposed  to  a  fierce  enfilade  from  the  Kangshol  and  Chingsan 
roads.  Staff-Major  Semba  Taro,  who  was  in  charge  of  the 
topographical  survey,  called  for  Wada,  in  whose  fidelity  and 
patient  endurance  he  had  great  faith,  and  said:  "Take  a 
boat  and,  keeping  out  of  bullet-range,  go  along  the  stream 
to  see  if  you  can  find  any  likely  ford;  moreover,  get  near 
enough  the  castle  on  the  southwest  to  find  out  whether  the 
walls  can  be  scaled."  Wada  went  at  once,  and,  having  pro- 
cured a  boat,  crossed  over  to  the  opposite  side,  taking  accu- 
rate soundings  of  the  depth  of  the  stream.  On  getting  close 
to  the  western  part  of  the  wall,  he  was  suddenly  espied  by 
the  Chinese  and  made  the  target  of  a  score  of  rifles.  The 
scout  withdrew  tininjured,  walked  cautiously  around  to  the 


228  HEROIC  EXPLOITS  OF  THE  JAPANESE 

south  of  the  walls  and  reached  a  hill  whence  he  enjoyed  an 
unobstructed  view  of  the  enemy  and  their  operations.  He 
noticed  that  the  shells  of  the  Japanese  guns  were  gradually 
breaking  the  walls  and  that  on  the  south  there  was  an  open 
field  flanked  by  Chinese  earthworks.  Retracing  his  steps  he 
regained  the  river  and  his  boat,  and  was  shortly  afterwards 
able  to  make  a  most  interesting  and  valuable  report.  He 
had  taken  only  one  hour  in  reconnoitring  the  whole. 

A  BIRD'S-EYE  VIEW 

The  greatest  obstacle  in  the  attack  on  Phyongyang  was 
the  swift,  deep  and  broad  Taidong  River,  which  had  to  be 
passed  over  before  the  siege  of  the  stronghold  could  begin. 
Before  reaching  the  stream,  the  Japanese  left  attacked  the 
enemy  on  the  right  bank,  while  marching  towards  a  village 
south  of  Phyongyang.  The  place  was  about  1,200  meters 
distant  from  the  enemy's  nearest  redoubts.  The  plain  there- 
abouts was  very  flat,  and  fields  of  millet,  grown  very  high, 
prevented  the  Japanese  from  seeing  what  the  enemy  were 
about.  The  Chinese  soldiers  took  full  advantage  of  this 
favorable  position  and  drew  nearer,  firing  as  they  came  on. 
The  commander  of  the  Eleventh  Company,  Twenty-first 
Regiment,  was  much  vexed  at  this:  and  noticing  a  tall  tree 
near  at  hand,  called  for  a  volunteer  to  climb  it  and  thence 
inspect  the  enemy's  movements.  Ishizaki  Sashiro,  a  second- 
class  private,  at  once  pressed  forward,  eagerly  claiming  per- 
mission to  climb  the  tree,  although  he  well  knew  that  in  so 
doing  he  would  be  the  target  for  scores  of  bullets.  Permission 
being  accorded,  Ishizaki  unstrapped  his  knapsack  and  laid 
aside  his  gun,  and  then  nimbly  climbed  upwards.  There  he 
had  an  uninterrupted  view  and  closely  inspected  the  oncom- 
ing enemy  and  their  movements.  He  stayed  quietly  in  the 
tree  for  .some  time  until  he  had  seen  all  that  was  necessary; 
and  in  these  ten  minutes  or  thereabouts  the  tree  was  five 


HEROIC  EXPLOITS  OF  THE  JAPANESE  229 

times  struck  by  bullets  within  two  meters  of  where  he  was. 
Ishizaki  paid  no  more  heed  to  these  deadly  missiles  than  if 
they  had  been  so  many  noisy  wasps.  Fortunately  he  received 
no  hurt  and  descended  in  safety;  but  his  escape  was  little 
short  of  miraculous. 

THAT   BABY! 

The  assault  of  the  Chaopei-tsai  fort  was  a  comparatively 
easy  task  for  the  Japanese,  for  the  Chinese  garrison  was  soon 
vanquished  and  the  fort  readily  seized  by  the  attacking 
forces.  After  all  was  over,  a  fine-looking  Chinese  woman 
was  seen  approaching  the  Japanese  lines,  having  evidently 
lost  her  way.  The  woman  was  in  all  probability  nothing 
more  than  the  concubine  of  one  of  the  Chinese  officers  in  the 
fort  before  its  capture;  yet  the  Japanese  took  pity  on  her 
for  the  sake  of  her  sex,  and  Lieutenant-Colonel  Kawamura 
Masanao,  who  was  commanding  a  battalion  of  engineers  in 
the  Sixth  Division,  showed  her  what  road  to  take  and  saw 
that  she  reached  in  safety  a  house  in  the  nearest  village. 
A  few  minutes  later  on,  some  of  the  soldiers  found  a  well- 
nourished  Chinese  baby  boy  lying  on  the  ground,  and  it  was 
supposed  that  the  child  belonged  to  the  woman  who  had  just 
been  sent  beyond  the  lines.  Pitying  the  little  fellow,  who 
was  crying  bitterly,  Captain  Higuchi  Seizabur.o,  of  the  Sixth 
Division,  picked  him  up  and  did  his  best  to  console  the  baby. 
But  as  the  young  Chinaman  refused  to  be  comforted,  Captain 
Higuchi  called  up  one  of  the  prisoners  and  told  him  that  he, 
the  captain,  would  give  him  his  liberty  if  he  took  that  baby 
to  its  parents.  To  this  the  Chinese  captive,  a  stalwart  fellow 
who  looked  as  if  he  might  have  children  himself,  joyfully 
consented;  but  the  baby  refused  to  be  separated  from  its 
Japanese  friend,  and  cried  harder  than  ever  when  the  Chinese 
tried  to  take  it  in  his  arms.  So,  holding  the  baby  in  his  left 
arm  while  he  grasped  his  sabre  with  the  right,  Captain  Higuchi 


230  HEROIC  EXPLOITS  OF  THE  JAPANESE 

marched  to  the  capture  of  the  next  fort,  receiving  at  one 
time  a  bullet  through  his  cap.  The  fort  was  taken  in  gallant 
style,  the  baby  meanwhile  looking  on  in  wondering  surprise 
at  the  din  and  uproar  of  the  battle,  perfectly  content  to  rest 
on  the  kind-hearted  captain's  shoulder.  When  all  was  over, 
this  gallant  officer  gave  his  tiny  charge  to  some  of  his  troopers, 
who  bore  the  child  in  safety  to  a  Chinese  house  in  a  village 
hard  by. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

J^pan  Robbed  of  Her  Spoils  by  Russia 

Significant  Events  in  the  Far  East — Japan  Wins  Spoils  and  Russia  Grasps  Them — • 
A  Japanese  View  of  Japan's  Grievance — "Spheres  of  Influence" — England's 
Isolated  Position — The  German  Sentiment — England  Takes  a  Hand  in  the 
Partition  of  China — Last  of  English  Prestige  in  the  East — The  World  Startled 
— Text  of  the  Treaty  Between  the  Island  Empires — The  Effect  of  the  Alliance 
In  Japan  and  China — Its  Importance  to  China  and  Korea — A  Great  Diplo- 
matic Triumph  for  Japan — Naval  Influence  in  Eastern  Waters — Military  and 
Naval  Progress — Financial  Development — Railways  in  Korea — The  Japanese 
a  True  Asiatic — Japan  in  China,  Manchuria,  and  Korea — Japanese  Schools 
in  Korea — The  Merchant  Marine — A  Remarkable  Legislative  Event — Legis- 
lative Progress  in  Japan. 

THE  Far  East  has  been  the  scene  of  the  most  momentous 
warlike  and  political  events  of  recent  years,  embracing 
the  Chino-Japanese  war  of  1894-95,  significant  as  indi- 
cating the  wonderful  recent  progress  in  military  power  of  the 
island  empire;  the  Boxer  outbreak  in  China,  equally  signifi- 
cant as  a  long  step  towards  breaking  up  the  mediaeval  stagna- 
tion of  that  ancient  realm;  and  the  war  of  Japan  and  Russia, 
the  final  outcome  of  these  interesting  events.  The  cause  of 
the  war  with  Russia  we  do  not  need  to  go  far  to  seek.  Japan 
had  been  robbed  of  the  spoils  of  her  victories  over  China  by 
Russia,  a  nation  which  took  no  part  in  the  conflict,  but 
stood  watchfully  by,  ready  to  pounce  upon  the  plunder. 
Aided  by  two  nations  she  had  brought  for  the  time  into 
looking  through  her  eyes — France  and  Germany — she  drove 
Japan,  then  in  no  condition  to  meet  this  powerful  coalition 
in  arms,  off  the  Asiatic  mainland,  and  changed  the  pieces 
on  the  political  chessboard  of  the  East  to  accord  with  her 

331 


23 2         JAPAN  ROBBED  OF  HER   SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA 

own   ambitious    schemes.     Japan   had   won   southern   Man 
ohuria  by  force  of  arms.     Russia  wanted  it,  and  by  a  diplo 
matic  request  significantly  backed  up  by  the  ships  of  wai 
of  herself  and  her  allies,  forced  Japan  to  recede  and  left  Port 
Arthur  open  for  her  tq  lease  for  her  own  purposes  two  years 
later. 

As  regards  the  Japanese  view  of  this  operation,  we  may 
quote  from  Mr.  T.  lyenaga,  an  able  author  of  the  island 
empire,  who  thus  expresses  his  sentiments  in  the  Review  of 
Reviews:  "As  to  Japan,  her  whole  diplomatic  history,  from 
the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  Shimonoseki  to  that  of  the  present 
Anglo-Japanese  agreement,  is  the  history  of  humiliation  and 
condescension.  Through  diplomacy,  she  was  shorn  of  the 
best  fruits  of  her  victory  over  China.  From  Port  Arthur, 
Wei-hai-wei,  and  Liao-tung  peninsula,  on  which  she  had 
shed  so  ungrudgingly  the  sacred  blood  of  her  sons,  she  was 
elbowed  out;  in  Korea,  for  whose  independence  and  regenera- 
tion Japan  fought,  she  found  her  influence  soon  waning,  and 
only  '  saved  her  face '  by  the  compromise  with  Russia  in  the 
Russo-Japanese  convention  of  1896.  Not  only  was  she  com- 
pelled to  acquiesce  in  these  injustices,  but  she  was  not  able 
to  raise  one  protest  against  those  transactions  which  snatched 
from  China  Port  Arthur,  Kiao-chau,  and  other  possessions, 
under  the  very  eyes  of  Japan  that  had  scarcely  winked  since 
the  battles  of  Kin-chow,  Port  Arthur,  and  the  Yalu." 

Russia  did  not  stand  alone  in  repaying  herself  for  her 
disinterested  advice  to  Japan  to  stand  back.  Germany  gained 
her  reward  in  the  seizure  of  Kiao-chau,  as  a  reparation  for 
the  murder  of  two  missionaries,  and  France  obtained  her 
prize  in  the  lease  of  Kwang-chau,  adjoining  her  Indo-China 
territory.  To  these  acquisitions  certain  concessions  of  a 
very  practical  kind  were  added,  consisting  of  the  right  to 
build  various  lines  of  railway,  and  the  grant  of  mining  and 
other  profitable  privileges.  Throughout  the  length  and 


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JAPAN  ROBBED  OF  HER  SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA         233 

breadth  of  the  Celestial  Empire  iron  webs  began  to  spread. 
At  the  same  time  there  came  into  being  that  significant  term, 
"spheres  of  interest,"  or  "spheres  of  influence."  In  the 
north,  Mongolia,  Manchuria,  and  the  upper  basin  of  the 
Hoang-ho  were,  according  to  the  Russian  estimate,  included 
in  the  Russian  "sphere  of  influence;"  in  the  south,  the  prov- 
ince of  Kwang-si  and  a  part  of  Yunnan  and  of  Kwang-tung 
were  claimed  by  the  French ;  the  German  province  of  Shang- 
tung  had  the  first  honor  of  initiation  in  the  nomenclature  of 
"spheres  of  influence."  Such  were  the  first  steps  taken 
towards  the  "partition  of  China,"  another  phrase  which 
now  became  widely  heard,  and  which  perhaps  only  the  mutual 
jealousies  of  the  powers  prevented  from  being  put  into  effect. 

England  meanwhile  had  stood  doubtfully  aside,  taking 
no  part  in  these  pioneer  movements  of  partition.  She  did 
not  join  the  coalition  against  Japan,  but  she  failed  to  come 
to  its  support,  standing  tentatively  in  a  position  of  isolation. 
This  policy  was  not  in  accordance  with  England's  record  in 
the  East,  in  which  she  had  previously  been  the  most  ready 
of  all  to  reach  out  for  the  spoils ;  and  as  the  process  of  veiled 
partition  went  on,  she  began  to  manifest  doubt  of  the  wisdom 
of  her  lack  of  readiness  to  grasp  her  share.  The  German 
premier,  Count  von  Biilow,  had  thus  expressed  the  greedy 
attitude  of  his  government,  in  a  declaration  before  the 
Reichstag  :— 

"  Mention  has  been  made  of  the  partition  of  China.  Such 
a  partition  will  not  be  brought  about  by  us,  at  any  rate.  All 
we  have  done  is  to  provide  that,  come  what  may,  we  our- 
selves shall  not  go  empty-handed.  The  traveler  cannot 
decide  when  the  train  is  to  start,  but  he  can  make  sure  not  to 
miss  it  when  it  starts.  The  devil  takes  the  hindmost." 

Possibly  this  view  of  the  case  had  its  share  in  the  con- 
version of  England  to  the  same  policy.  At  all  events,  we 
see  her  now  taking  a  hand  in  the  game  in  the  acquisition  of 


234        JAPAN  ROBBED  OF  HER   SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA 

the  valuable  port  of  Wei-hai-wei,  and  the  demarcation  of  her 
"sphere  of  influence"  in  the  vast  basin  of  fertile  land  in  the 
valley  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang.  It  must  be  said,  however, 
that  despite  these  acquisitions  England  had  lost  her  proud 
position  as  occupying  the  first  seat  at  the  council-board  of 
nations  in  Asia,  won  by  her  superior  political  and  commercial 
interests,  and  had  fallen  to  an  inferior  position,  Russia  having 
succeeded  her  as  the  political  controller  of  China.  That 
England  was  losing  her  influence  in  the  affairs  of  Asia  was 
manifest  to  every  observer,  and  many  of  her  statesmen  were 
loud  in  their  denunciation  of  the  weakness  of  the  English 
Asiatic  policy.  From  the  chambers  of  commerce  and  other 
corporations  in  Chinese  and  other  adjoining  seaports  was 
echoed  the  same  voice.  This  loss  of  English  prestige  was  also 
seen  in  the  near  East,  especially  in  Persia,  where  the  Shah  had 
fallen  into  the  firm  grasp  of  the  Russian  minister.  All  this 
loss  of  political  influence  was  the  outcome  of  the  English 
policy  of  splendid  isolation. 

England  and  Japan  alike  had  been  losers  in  the  game 
of  politics  and  diplomacy  in  Asia,  and  it  may  have  been  this 
that  tended  to  bring  these  two  countries  together  for  the 
restoration  of  their  lost  influence.  There  seems  to  have  been 
a  growing  discovery,  in  the  words  of  Lord  Lansdowne,  that, 
"throughout  the  troubles  and  complications  the  two  powers 
have  been  in  close  and  uninterrupted  communication,  and 
have  been  actuated  by  similar  views,"  and  that  "from  the 
discovery  that  their  Far  Eastern  policy  was  identical,  has 
resulted  an  international  contract  of  binding  validity." 

However  this  be,  the  world  was  startled  in  the  early  days 
of  1902  with  the  unlooked-for  news  that  England  and  Japan 
had  joined  hands  in  a  treaty  of  alliance,  in  which  these  two 
powers,  the  great  Island  Kingdom  of  the  West  and  the  young 
Island  Empire  of  the  East  had  taken  a  stand  in  company 
against  the  forces  which  were  working  to  lower  the  position 


JAPAN  ROBBED  OF  HER   SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA         235 

ot  both  of  them  in  Eastern  affairs.     We  give  here  the  text  of 
this  treaty,  signed  at  London  on  the  3oth  of  January,  1902: 

The  Governments  of  Great  Britain  and  Japan,  actuated 
solely  by  a  desire  to  maintain  the  status  quo  and  general  peace 
in  the  extreme  East,  being,  moreover,  specially  interested 
,in  maintaining  the  independence  and  territorial  integrity  of 
the  Empire  of  China  and  the  Empire  of  Korea,  and  in  securing 
equal  opportunities  in  those  countries  for  the  commerce  and 
industry  of  all  nations,  hereby  agree  as  follows : 

ARTICLE  I. — The  High  Contracting  Parties  having 
mutually  recognized  the  independence  of  China  and  of  Korea, 
declare  themselves  to  be  entirely  uninfluenced  by  any  aggres- 
sive tendencies  in  either  country.  Having  in  view,  however, 
their  special  interests,  of  which  those  of  Great  Britain  relate 
principally  to  China,  while  Japan,  in  addition  to  the  interests 
which  she  possesses  in  China,  is  interested  in  a  peculiar  degree 
politically,  as  well  as  commercially  and  industrially,  in  Korea, 
the  High  Contracting  Parties  recognize  that  it  will  be  admis- 
sible for  either  of  them  to  take  such  measures  as  may  be 
indispensable  in  order  to  safeguard  those  interests  if  threat- 
ened either  by  the  aggressive  action  of  any  other  power  or 
by  disturbances  arising  in  China  or  Korea,  and  necessitating 
the  intervention  of  either  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties 
for  the  protection  of  the  lives  and  property  of  its  subjects. 

ARTICLE  II. — If  either  Great  Britain  or  Japan,  in  the 
defence  of  their  respective  interests  as  above  described,  should 
become  involved  in  war  with  another  power,  the  other  High 
Contracting  Party  will  maintain  a  strict  neutrality,  and  use 
its  efforts  to  prevent  other  powers  from  joining  in  hostilities 
against  its  ally. 

ARTICLE  III. — If  in  the  above  event  any  other  power  or 
powers  should  join  in  hostilities  against  that  ally,  the  other 
High  Contracting  Party  will  come  to  its  assistance  and  will 
conduct  the  war  in  common,  and  make  peace  in  mutual  agree- 
ment with  it. 

ARTICLE  IV. — The  High  Contracting  Parties  agree  that 
neither  of  them  will,  without  consulting  the  other,  enter 


23''         JAPA.V  ROBBED  OF  HER   SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA 

into  separate  arrangements  with  another  power  to  the  preju- 
dice of  the  interests  above  described. 

ARTICLE  V. — Whenever,  in  the  opinion  of  either  Great 
Britain  or  Japan,  the  above-mentioned  interests  are  in 
jeopardy,  the  two  Governments  will  communicate  with  one, 
another  fully  and  frankly. 

ARTICLE  VI. — The  present  agreement  shall  come  into 
effect  immediately  after  the  date  of  its  signature,  and  remain 
in  force  for  five  vears  from  that  date. 

•/ 

In  case  neither  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  should 
have  notified  twelve  months  before  the  expiration  of  the 
said  five  years  the  intention  of  terminating  it,  it  shall  remain 
binding  until  the  expiration  of  one  year  from  the  day  on 
which  either  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  shall  have 
denounced  it.  But  if,  when  the  date  fixed  for  its  expiration 
arrives,  either  ally  is  actually  engaged  in  war,  the  alliance 
shall,  ipso  facto,  continue  until  peace  is  concluded. 

In  faith  whereof  the  Undersigned,  duly  authorized  by 
their  respective  Governments,  have  signed  this  agreement, 
and  have  affixed  thereto  their  seals. 

Done  in  duplicate  at  London,  the  3oth  January,  1902. 

(L.  S.)       (Signed)       LANSDOWNE. 
(L.  S.)       (Signed)       HAYASHT. 

The  news  of  the  conclusion  of  this  alliance  was  received 
in  Japan  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  and  brought  high 
prestige  to  the  existing  Cabinet.  China  also  was  excited 
by  the  tidings,  and  there  was  quickly  seen  a  disposition  on 
the  part  of  the  officials  of  that  country  to  take  a  firmer  stand 
in  their  dealings  with  foreign  powers.  It  is  an  evidence  of 
this  sentiment  that  the  Chinese  government  refused  to  dis- 
cuss further  with  the  Russian  agents  the  pending  matter  of 
the  Russo-Chinese  Bank,  and  that  it  insisted  that  the  Rus- 
sians should  evacuate  Manchuria  in  one  year,  in  successive 
periods  of  four  months  each,  instead  of  in  three  years,  as  the 
Russians  demanded.  In  this  the  Chinese  diplomats  won, 
so  far  as  obtaining  the  promise  of  Russia  to  evacuate.  In 


JAPAN  ROBBED  OF  HER   SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA         237 

fact,  it  is  not  easy  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  the  Anglo- 
Japanese  alliance  to  the  tottering  Celestial  Empire.  Nothing 
could  have  been  of  more  moment  to  the  old  realm,  threatened 
as  it  was  by  the  land-hungry  powers  of  continental  Europe. 

One  aim  of  the  treaty  was  to  insure  the  territorial  integ- 
rity 01  China  and  Korea,  and  to  keep  an  open  door  to  trade 
in  the  Chinese  Empire.  Politically  and  industrially  it  sought 
to  maintain  the  status  quo,  to  preserve  "  equal  opportunities  in 
those  countries  for  the  commerce  and  industry  of  all  nations," 
to  preserve  neutrality  in  the  event  of  one  of  the  contracting 
parties  engaging  in  war  with  another,  while  lending  warlike 
aid  in  case  of  one  of  them  becoming  involved  in  war  with  two 
other  powers. 

It  proposed  in  particular  to  check  Russia  in  any  design 
she  might  have  on  Chinese  territory  and  in  any  movement 
that  she  might  make  to  close  any  port  of  Chinese  territory 
to  the  trade  of  other  nations.  And  England  came  to  Japan's 
aid  in  maintaining  the  existing  condition  in  Korea. 

But  the  effect  of  the  treaty  is  wider  than  any  specific 
purpose  of  this  nature.  It  is  certainly  significant  that  the 
greatest  naval  power  in  the  world  admits  into  the  front  lank 
of  nations,  by  this  treaty,  the  youngest  naval  power.  It  is  a 
great  diplomatic  triumph  for  Japan,  and  it  gives  her  a  stand- 
ing that  she  never  had  before.  In  the  next  place  it  is  prac- 
tically a  declaration  that  Russia,  Germany,  and  France  shall 
not  be  allowed  to  take  more  colonial  possessions  in  the  Far 
East.  This  is  almost  the  same  as  to  say  that  the  whole  earth 
has  now  been  partitioned  and  that  colonial  extension  must 
cease. 

If  it  lift  up  Japanese  pride  it  also  strengthens  Japanese 
power;  and  it  will  enormously  hasten  the  further  develop- 
ment of  Japan  as  a  modern  nation,  aiding  it  immensely  in 
its  rise  out  of  Oriental  isolation  into  the  family  of  modern 
nations,  a  distinction  which  it  is  the  only  non-Christian  coun- 
try as  yet  to  possess. 


238        JAPAN  ROBBED  OF  HER   SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA 

In  fact,  this  alliance  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
both  the  parties  immediately  concerned.  With  their  fleets 
united  there  is  scarcely  any  combination  of  hostile  naval 
forces  which  could  seriously  menace  their  possessions  in  the 
waters  of  the  East.  Russia,  even  if  supported  by  her  ally 
France,  cannot  safely  threaten  the  integrity  of  either  China 
or  Korea  from  the  sea,  and  the  position  of  the  representatives 
of  the  contracting  parties  at  the  courts  of  Peking  and  Seoul 
is  very  greatly  strengthened.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that 
the  Chinese  officials,  with  whom  force  has  always  been  the 
strongest  argument,  should  exclaim,  "  to  British  prestige 
in  the  Far  East  a  tremendous  advancement  has  been  given." 

The  compulsory  revision  of  the  Shimonoseki  Treaty, 
by  the  joint  action  of  Russia,  Germany,  and  France,  while 
checking  Japan  in  what  appeared  the  legitimate  prizes  of  her 
victories,  by  no  means  put  an  end  to  her  activity  and  ambi- 
tion. In  the  succeeding  years  the  attitude  of  the  Tokio 
Foreign  Office  was  marked  by  much  reserve  and  dignity, 
and  the  position  of  Japan  among  the  nations  of  the  world 
grew  steadily  more  important.  The  money  received  from 
China  was  employed  in  prosecuting  military  and  naval  prog- 
ress on  an  extensive  scale,  and  with  the  warships  built  in  her 
own  yards  and  those  purchased  abroad  Japan's  position  as  a 
naval  power  of  high  rank  rapidly  grew.  Her  army  was  also 
sedulously  attended  to,  increasing  in  numbers,  improving  in 
discipline,  and  being  equipped  with  the  most  effective  arms, 
until  her  preparation  for  war  became  equal  to  that  of  any 
nation  in  the  world  on  a  level  with  her  in  population.  The 
important  question  of  finance  was  also  carefully  attended 
to,  and  in  this  respect  also  Japan  took  a  position  rivaling 
those  of  the  advanced  nations  of  the  world.  Whether  or  not 
the  Mikado  cherished  the  ambition  to  play  a  leading  part 
in  the  game  of  empire  in  the  East,  he  certainly  was  putting 
himself  in  position  with  all  available  rapidity  to  play  his  part 
well  if  he  should  be  forced  into  it. 


JAPAN  ROBBED  OF  HER  SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA         239 

Gaming,  through  the  consent  of  Russia,  a  position  of 
ascendency  in  Korea,  the  opportunity  was  quickly  turned 
to  account  by  building  a  railway  from  the  port  of  Chemulpo 
to  Seoul,  the  capital,  which  was  sure  to  be  of  great  benefit 
to  Japan  in  the  event  of  a  struggle  for  the  control  of  the  Hermit 
Kingdom,  and  a  much  longer  road  was  begun  from  Fusan,  a 
southern  port  not  far  removed  from  Japan,  northward  to 
the  capital. 

In  this  regard  we  may  with  benefit  quote  from  John 
Barrett,  formerly  United  States  Minister  to  Siam  and  a  diplo- 
mat deeply  versed  in  the  politics  and  trade  of  the  East. 
Speaking  of  the  character  of  the  Japanese,  Mr.  Barrett  says  :* 

"The  Japanese  army  officer,  lawgiver,  merchant,  and 
general  utility  man  seems  to  possess  more  all-round  capabili- 
ties for  bringing  out  what  is  best  in  his  fellow  Asiatic  than 
any  other  national.  The  average  Japanese  understands 
thoroughly  and  completely  the  average  Chinese,  Korean, 
Siamese,  and  miscellaneous  Asiatic,  where  the  European  and 
American  labors  in  mystery  and  ignorance.  This  is  natural. 
The  Japanese  people  are  akin  to  other  Asiatics.  They  are 
probably  of  Malay  origin  and  so  have  racial  sympathies  with 
the  southern  Asiatics.  Their  written  language  is  the  same 
as  that  of  China  and  Korea  in  its  higher  forms,  and  hence  they 
have  in  this  a  bond  of  closer  union  than  any  possessed  by  the 
Caucasian  races.  They  understand  the  Asiatic  point  of  view, 
and  this  is  a  matter  of  cardinal  importance.  They  look  at 
Europeans  and  Americans  largely  through  the  same  glasses 
as  gaze  upon  the  rest  of  the  Asiatic  peoples.  They  are  not 
compelled  to  reverse  their  methods  of  reasoning  to  appreciate 
how  the  Chinese,  Koreans  and  Siamese  reach  a  conclusion. 
They  can  teach  and  lead  with  a  directness  and  efficiency  that 
are  lacking  among  Europeans.  In  bringing  out  these  compari- 
sons, I  do  not  mean  that  the  Japanese  have  not  their  weak- 

*  "  The  American  Review  of  Reviews,"  December,  190?. 


240        JAPAN  ROBBED  OF  HER   SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA 

nesses  and  shortcomings,  or  that  in  the  comprehensive 
economy  of  the  world  they  are  in  any  way  superior  to  the 
progressive  races  of  Europe  and  America.  They  are  simply 
better  suited  to  deal  with  their  own  kind,  and  they  have  added 
to  that  quality  immeasurable  strength  by  studying,  adopting 
and  mastering,  to  a  commendable  degree,  the  influences  that 
have  done  so  much  to  build  up  the  nations  and  peoples  of 
America  and  Europe.  This  argument  is  not  a  eulogy  of  Japan ; 
it  is  a  frank  description  of  what  she  is  preparing  to  do  at  this 
hour. 

"A  secret  of  Japan's  success  along  these  lines  is  this: 
Europeans  want  to  do  everything  for  Asiatics  in  the  sense  of 
monopolizing  the  doing;  the  Japanese  wish  to  teach  the 
Asiatics  to  do  for  themselves  as  they  are  doing  for  themselves. 
In  China  it  has  been  found  that  a  Japanese  army  officer,  or 
instructor  along  any  line,  will  accomplish  more  with  greater 
interest  on  the  part  of  the  student  in  a  given  time  than  any 
other  foreigner.  Japanese  merchants,  principally  on  a  small 
scale,  are  locating  themselves  in  all  parts  of  the  interior  of 
China  where  no  European  merchant  has  ever  thought  of 
going. 

"  In  Manchuria,  where  Russia  is  supposed  to  have 
supreme  control,  the  Japanese  tradesmen  outnumber  the 
Russians  fifty  to  five.  If  one  journeys  over  the  Russian 
railways  from  Port  Arthur  and  Dalny  north  to  Harbin,  and 
then  across  to  Vladivostok,  he  sees  almost  as  many  unofficial 
Japanese  traveling  as  Russians.  Recently,  in  going  from 
Port  Arthur  to  the  new  Russian  port  of  Dalny,  I  counted 
ten  Japanese  and  two  Russians  in  the  first-class  car,  and  was 
informed  that  this  was  not  an  exceptional  ratio. 

"  In  Korea  she  has  agencies  at  work  that  no  other  coun- 
try can  employ.  These  are  her  own  emigrants  to  Korea. 
Japanese  settlements  are  springing  up  from  the  Manchurian 
border  to  the  southern  cape.  These  villages  and  the  Japa- 


JAPAN  ROBBED  OF  HER  SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA        241 

nese  sections  of  the  Korean  cities  are  always  well  governed, 
and  the  people  seem  prosperous  and  contented.  They  are 
not  ground  down  by  the  squeeze  of  Korean  cfficialdom  that 
takes  the  life  out  of  the  average  Korean,  and  the  example 
of  their  welfare  and  good  government  is  unmistakably  teaching 
the  Korean  people  and  convincing  the  Korean  officials  that 
a  new  order  of  things  must  be  presently  inaugurated,  either 
alone  or  with  Japanese  cooperation,  if  Korea  would  main- 
tain her  independence  and  lasting  welfare. 

"  If  ever  one  nation  made  a  peaceful  conquest  of  another 
along  legitimate  lines  of  settlement  and  material  development, 
it  would  seem  as  if  Japan  were  accomplishing  this  result  in 
Korea.  In  the  literal  meaning  of  schoolmaster  we  find  Japan 
exercising  her  capacity  within  the  borders  of  her  neighbor. 
Wherever  there  are  Japanese  settlements  in  Korean  towns,  or 
new  villages  are  located,  a  schoolhouse  is  immediately  built 
to  which  all  the  Japanese  children  are  required  to  go  and 
receive  systematic  instruction  from  a  Japanese  teacher. 
There  were  practically  no  schools  in  Korea,  except  those  of  the 
foreign  missionaries,  until  the  Japanese  opened  their  own. 
In  Chemulpo  and  Seoul  I  heard  the  same  buzz  in  passing 
the  modest  little  schoolhouses  that  is  heard  all  over  Japan 
and  is  so  characteristic  of  her  inland  towns." 

Something  should  be  said  here  of  the  position  of  vantage 
gained  by  Japan  as  a  result  of  her  participation  in  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Boxer  outbreak  of  1900.  Previously  she  had 
been  distinctively  an  Eastern  power,  availing  herself  of  the 
advantages  of  Western  culture,  but  standing  alone  in  her 
relations  with  China  and  Korea,  and  looked  upon  by  the 
nations  of  the  West  as  a  remarkable  Oriental  phenomenon. 
In  1900,  however,  she  definitely  became  one  of  the  great 
family  of  modern  nations,  her  troops  marching  side  by  side 
with  those  of  Europe  and  America,  in  intimate  alliance, 
at)d  showing  themselves  abundantly  worthy  of  the  honor, 

16 


242         JAPAN  ROBBED   OF  HER   SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA 

and  full}*  up-to-date  in  military  matters  with  her  colleagues. 
Since  that  period  Japan  has  stepped  from  the  attitude  of 
an  Oriental  into  that  of  a  world  nation,  a  position  which 
is  sure  to  be  strengthened  by  the  struggle  with  Russia. 

In  connection  with  the  latter  is  an  event  of  importance 
which  took  place  at  the  opening  of  the  Japanese  Diet,  or 
Parliament,  on  December  n,  1903.  The  war  fever  in  Japan 
was  then  growing  acute  and  the  war  party  in  the  Diet  was 
strong.  The  emperor,  as  usual,  appeared  before  the  Lower 
House,  and  delivered  a  brief  address  on  the  conditions  of  the 
empire  in  the  quiet  and  pacific  tone  in  which  such  perfunc- 
tory remarks  are  apt  to  be  couched.  His  very  short  speech 
began  as  follows:  "  My  lords  and  gentlemen:  It  gives  us  pro- 
found cause  for  rejoicing  that  the  friendly  relations  between 
our  empire  and  other  powers  ever  continue  to  grow."  Refer- 
ring to  what  was  called  "the  important  diplomatic  matter 
of  maintaining  peace  in  the  Orient  and  of  our  rights,"  the 
Mikado  merely  declared  that  Japan's  ministers  abroad  were 
instructed  "  carefully  to  attend  to  their  duties." 

This  vague  and  colorless  declaration  was  highly  unsatis- 
factory to  the  people's  representatives,  who  seem  to  have 
been  full  of  martial  fire,  and  deeply  dissatisfied  with  the 
lack  of  energy  in  the  government.  They  took  the  unusual 
step  of  framing  a  dissenting  reply.  An  answer  was  drawn 
up  by  the  president  of  the  House  and  promptly  adopted, 
which  amounted  to  a  sweeping  and  unqualified  vote  of  cen- 
sure upon  the  Katsura  administration.  This  reply  was  so 
remarkable  as  coming  from  a  Japanese  legislative  body  that 
it  may  well  be  quoted  in  full : 

'Your  Majesty  has  been  gracious  enough  to  personally 
open  -the  Diet  and  to  deliver  a  cordial  message,which  the  House 
has  received  with  great  gratitude. 

"  The  empire  of  Japan  is  now  at  its  zenith.  Its  position 
is  one  unparalleled  in  the  last  thousand  years.  The  members 


JAPAN  ROBBED  OF  HER   SPOILS  BY  RUSSIA         243 

of  the  House  of  Representatives  profoundly  regret  that  at  a 
juncture  so  critical,  involving  the  fate  of  the  nation,  the 
course  pursued  by  the  Cabinet  is  ill  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
situation  and  inconsistent  with  the  enhancement  of  our 
national  influence.  The  policy  of  the  ministry  has  been 
shown  to  be  incompatible  with  the  progress  of  the  empire, 
and  to  be  purely  domestic  and  temporizing. 

"The  diplomacy  of  the  Cabinet  is  a  failure,  and  we 
humbly  appeal  to  your  Majesty  to  review  the  situation. 

"  Our  solicitude  for  the  progress  of  the  empire  dictates 
this  reply,  which  represents  the  aspirations  and  expectations 
of  the  nation." 

This  marks  a  radical  change  in  the  methods  of  parlia- 
mentary government  in  Japan,  since  the  Assembly  has  never 
before  in  any  manner  replied  to  the  emperor's  speech  except 
by  way  of  a  humble  vote  of  thanks.  The  Cabinet  met  at  once 
and  decided  to  endeavor  to  secure  a  reconsideration  of  the 
bold  action  of  the  House;  but  the  House  refused  to  recede 
in  the  least  from  its  position,  the  Parliament  was  not  only 
adjourned,  but  dissolved  by  authority  of  the  emperor. 

The  incident  is  given  here  as  indicating  that  the  legisla- 
ture of  Japan  is  waking  up  to  a  fuller  sense  than  heretofore 
of  its  powers  and  responsibilities,  and  that  politically — as  in 
every  other  direction — Japan  is  in  a  process  of  rapid  growth. 
And  as  war  is  proverbially  of  advantage  in  advancing  the 
rights  of  the  people,  the  present  struggle  may  have  for  one 
of  its  outcomes  the  development  of  a  legislature  more  dis- 
tinctly approaching  in  character  and  power  than  heretofore 
these  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

The  Boxer  Outbreak  in  China 

Factions  in  China — Reform  Checked  by  the  Empress  Dowager — The  Emperor  Loses 
Control — The  Boxer  Insurrection — Murder  of  Missionaries — Admiral  Sey- 
mour's Expedition  and  its  Repulse — Attack  on  the  Taku  Forts — The  Allies 
in  Tien-tsin — The  Chinese  City  Taken  by  Storm — The  Peril  of  the  Ministers 
— March  of  the  Allies  on  Peking — Battles  on  the  Way — Capture  of  Peking 
and  Rescue  of  the  Legations — The  Dashing  Courage  of  the  Japanese — The 
Brave  Defence  of  the  Legations — Peking  a  Captured  City — In  the  Forbidden 
City — The  Evacuation — Treaty  of  Peace  and  Indemnity — The  Punishment 
of  China. 

THE  results  of  the  Chino- Japanese  war  were  many  and 
momentous.  Seme  important  ones  have  been  spoken 
of  in  former  chapters.  An  indirect  one,  yet  in  its 
outcome  the  most  signal  of  them  all,  the  great  Boxer  outbreak 
of  1900  in  China,  remains  to  be  dealt  with.  It  was,  as  just 
said,  an  indirect  result  of  the  war;  but  it  stirred  official  China 
to  its  depths  and  made  its  influence  felt  far  down  in  the  vast 
multitude  of  the  Chinese  people.  The  more  far-sighted 
statesmen  of  the  empire  had  come  to  perceive  the  necessity 
of  radical  reforms  in  the  administration  of  affairs  and  the 
adoption  of  modern  methods  in  China,  if  that  land  was  tc 
put  itself  on  a  level  with  Japan  and  the  powers  of  the  West. 
As  a  result  various  innovations  were  made,  a  significant  one 
being  the  doing  away  in  part  with  the  ancient  subjects  of 
examination  for  the  civil  service  and  replacing  them  by  tile 
lore  and  science  of  the  West. 

In  a  nation  so  deeply  conservative  as  China,  innovations 
as  radical  as  these  could  not  go  far  without  provoking  hostile 
feeling  and  leading  to  reaction.  Another  effect  was  to 
intensify  the  hatred  of  foreigners  by  the  people,  who  looked! 

244 


THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA  245 

on  these  changes  as  a  result  of  the  advent  of  foreign  trade 
and  missionary  teachings  in  the  empire.  A  double  result 
followed.  The  Dowager  Empress,  the  head  of  the  reac- 
tionary party,  came  again  to  the  head  of  affairs  through  a 
palace  revolution,  an  edict  being  issued  on  January  24,  1900, 
to  the  effect  that  the  Emperor  Kwang  Hsu  was  unable  to 
attend  to  the  business  of  the  empire  on  account  of  ill  health, 
and  had  appointed  the  young  son  of  Prince  Tuan  as  his  heir. 
While  this  did  not  indicate  an  actual  abdication,  it  left  the 
complete  control  of  affairs  in  the  hands  of  the  old  empress, 
who  showed  her  hand  in  various  reactionary  measures,  one 
being  to  restore  the  old  subjects  of  examination  and  do  away 
with  the  study  of  Western  knowledge  which  the  emperor 
had  introduced. 

The  other  result  was  one  in  which  the  foreign  world 
was  more  directly  concerned.  It  consisted  in  a  rising  of  the 
people  against  the  missionaries,  mission  settlements  being 
plundered  and  their  inmates  maltreated  or  murdered.  This 
was  especially  the  case  in  the  northern  provinces  of  Shan- 
tung and  Chi-li,  many  of  the  missionaries  having  to  flee  for 
their  lives,  under  circumstances  of  great  peril  and  hardship. 

And  now  a  new  name  was  first  heard  in  the  outside 
world,  that  of  the  Chinese  society  of  the  Boxers,  a  powerful 
anti-foreign  league,  to  which  the  disorders  were  chiefly  due 
and  which  had  grown  highly  popular  and  very  strong  in 
membership.  On  April  7  the  Chinese  Foreign  Office  was 
notified  by  the  powers  that  unless  the  disorders  were  sup- 
pressed, troops  would  be  landed  and  march  inland  to  protect 
foreigners.  But  the  trouble  went  on,  a  force  of  insurgent 
Chinese  being  bold  enough  to  attack  the  British  settlement 
at  Wei-hai-wei.  They  were  easily  repulsed,  but  the  authori- 
ties took  no  active  steps  to  suppress  the  insurgents,  and  it 
began  to  be  believed  that  the  Dowager  Empress  was  at  the 
bottom  of  the  movement  and  was  secretly  giving  support 
and  encouragement  to  the  anti-foreign  faction. 


246  THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA 

The  Boxers,  whose  professed  purpose  was  gymnastic  and 
pugilistic  training  for  purposes  of  peace  and  justice,  were 
secretly  leagued  against  everything  foreign,  and  the  fact 
that  the  government  took  no  measures  to  check  their  out- 
rages soon  added  to  the  boldness  and  breadth  of  their  assaults 
on  the  missions.  During  May  a  large  number  of  native 
Christians  were  murdered  and  much  railroad  property  was 
destroyed.  A  small  body  of  Chinese  troops  was  sent  against 
the  Boxers,  but  these  were  easily  defeated  and  most  of  them 
joined  the  insurgents,  so  that  by  the  ist  of  June  the  situation 
of  the  missionaries  and  their  converts  had  become  one  of 
extreme  danger. 

It  had  now  become  evident  that  the  powers  must  take 
more  active  measures  than  protests,  and  that  the  foreign 
ministers  themselves  were  in  peril,  and  warships  began 
rapidly  to  gather  at  the  port  of  Taku,  twenty-three  vessels 
of  various  nations,  having  reached  there  by  June  i,  1900. 
On  May  30  Admiral  Kempff  landed  100  marines  from  the 
United  States  squadron,  and  sent  them  to  Tien-tsin,  some 
distance  up  the  Peiho  River,  to  go  by  railway  to  Peking. 
These  were  soon  followed  by  detachments  from  other  ships, 
their  purpose  being  the  defence  of  the  legation  officials  at  the 
Chinese  capital.  An  allied  force,  2,000  strong,  marched  from 
Tien-tsin  on  the  loth  of  June,  under  the  leadership  of  Admi- 
ral Seymour,  of  the  British  navy,  its  goal  being  Peking, 
seventy -five  miles  distant.  Here  its  presence  was  urgently- 
demanded,  since  every  day  the  position  of  the  embassies  grew 
more  critical.  Peking,  indeed,  had  become  a  closed  city  to 
the  world.  No  news,  other  than  threatening  rumors,  came 
from  behind  its  walls,  and  the  actual  fate  of  the  ambassadors 
and  their  official  families  was  unknown. 

For  some  time  the  progress  of  Seymour's  troops  remained 
equally  unknown,  but  on  June  25  a  message  from  him 
reached  Tien-tsin,  sayine  that  on  his  retreat  from  within 


THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA  247 

twelve  miles  of  Peking  he  had  been  blocked  eight  or  ten  miles 
from  Tien-tsin,  was  terribly  harassed  by  a  great  force  of  the 
enemy,  had  lost  sixty-two  men  killed,  was  "caring  for  206 
wounded,  could  hold  out  only  two  days  longer,  and  needed 
for  rescue  a  force  of  2,000  men.  A  rescue  column  was  imme- 
diately dispatched,  and  found  that  since  his  message  he  had, 
by  a  night  attack,  captured  a  Chinese  armory  and  arsenal, 
with  immense  stores  of  ammunition  and  rice.  The  armory 
was  burned,  and  the  allied  forces  reached  Tien-tsin  June  26. 
They  reported  the  killing  of  hundreds  of  Chinamen  in  their 
fortnight's  battling.  The  failure  of  this  relief  expedition 
revealing  to  the  Chinese,  who  care  little  for  human  life,  their 
ability  to  overcome  European,  American,  and  Japanese 
troops,  was  a  most  grievous  damage  to  the  cause  of  the  allies. 
At  Washington  orders  were  given  for  reinforcement  of  Admiral 
Kempff's  fleet  without  delay;  and  the  next  day  President 
McKinley  ordered  three  regiments  of  regulars  from  Manila. 

The  Chinese,  who  had  laid  torpedoes  in  the-  Taku  River 
and  gathered  large  bodies  of  troops  in  the  vicinity,  were 
warned  by  an  ultimatum  from  the  commanders  of  the  foreign 
fleet  to  withdraw  their  troops  before  2  o'clock  of  June  17. 
At  i  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  that  day  the  Taku  forts  opened 
fire  on  the  ships.  The  ships  replied,  and  after  seven  hours' 
bombardment  two  of  the  forts  were  blown  up  and  the  others 
were  carried  by  assault.  The  casualties  in  the  fleet  were 
reported  thus :  killed,  twenty-one,  of  which  sixteen  were 
Russian;  wounded,  fifty-seven,  of  which  forty-five  were 
Russian.  The  Russian  loss  was  due  to  an  exploding  maga- 
zine. The  Chinese  loss  in  killed  was  reported  at  400. 

About  the  same  time  the  allied  troops  at  Tien-tsin,  4,000 
strong — including  800  Americans — found  themselves  hotly 
attacked  by  the  Chinese.  Heavy  bombardment  of  the 
foreign  position  was  reported,  with  destruction  of  the  consul- 
ates and  other  foreign  buildings.  A  force  of  4,000  Russians 


248  THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA 

and  Japanese  was  hurried  to  their  aid,  and  succeeded,  after 
some  heavy  fighting,  in  effecting  a  junction.  The  fighting 
was  persistent  "till  well  in  July,  the  Chinese  displaying  an 
unwonted  courage  and  endurance,  and  making  daily  attacks 
on  the  "  foreign  city, "  which  was  commanded  by  guns  mounted 
on  the  walls  of  the  "Chinese  city."  On  July  9  an  attack 
by  about  2,500  British,  American,  Russian  and  Japanese 
troops  was  made  on  the  Chinese  positions  southwest  of  the 
city,  which  were  taken,  with  heavy  loss  to  the  Chinese.  But 
the  situation  daily  grew  more  serious,  the  Chinese  gradually 
closing  in  on  their  foes,  with  vastly  superior  numbers. 

It  was  felt  indispensable,  if  the  allied  forces  were  not  to 
be  annihilated  by  these  incessant  attacks,  to  capture  the 
walled  city  held  by  the  Chinese,  and  on  July  13  seven  thou- 
sand of  the  allied  troops  sallied  forth  on  the  perilous  task  of 
storming  the  walls,  from  which  a  terrific  artillery  fire  was 
poured  upon  them.  The  Chinese  on  the  walls  were  estimated 
at  not  less  than  20,000.  The  allies  suffered  a  severe  reverse. 
The  American  commander,  Colonel  Emerson  H.  Liscum,  of  the 
Ninth  United  States  Infantry,  a  soldier  who  had  won  renown, 
was  mortally  wounded. '  Several  other  American  officers  were 
killed  or  wounded.  On  the  next  morning  the  allies  resumed 
the  attack,  breached  the  walls,  and  afterward  stormed  and 
captured  all  the  forts,  and  took  complete  possession  of  the 
city.  Their  total  losses  in  three  days  of  fighting  were  about 
800  killed  or  wounded,  the  Chinese  losing  much  more  largely 
and  a  great  part  of  their  city  being  destroyed.  In  a  few  days 
afterward  they  disappeared  from  the  vicinity,  which  was  left 
wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  allies. 

In  the  meantime  intense  anxiety  prevailed  in  the  nations 
of  Europe  and  America  which  had  ministers  at  Peking.  Of 
the  situation  of  these  no  satisfactory  information  could  be 
obtained,  while  the  rumors  that  made  their  way  out  were 
full  of  sanguinary  details.  It  was  known,  moreover,  that 


THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA  245 

the  Japanese  Chancellor  of  Legation  had  been  killed  in  the 
streets  on  June  13,  and  that  on  the  i8th  Baron  von  Ketteler, 
the  German  minister,  had  been  murdered  by  Chinese  soldiers 
while  on  his  way  to  the  Tsung-li-yamen  (the  Chinese  Foreign 
Office).  All  this  filled  the  Western  world  with  dismal  fore- 
bodings, and  the  necessity  of  a  march  in  force  on  Peking, 
for  the  rescue  of  the  deeply  imperiled  legations,  became 
imperative.  '  There  was  every  reason  to  believe  that  the 
empress  was  in  full  sympathy  with  the  Boxer  movement, 
that  the  soldiers  had  largely  joined  it,  and  that  Prince  Tuan, 
brother-in-law  of  the  Dowager  Empress,  was  the  chief  leader 
in  the  insurrectionary  outbreak. 

On  July  1 8  the  following  statement  reached  Europe, 
as  part  of  a  message  from  the  Chinese  government : 

"  For  a  month  past,  with  the  exception  of  the  German 
minister,  who  was  assassinated  by  rebels  who  are  under 
apprehension  of  severe  punishment,  we  have  ordered  all  other 
foreign  ministers  well  protected  by  the  court,  and  happily 
they  are  safe  and  sound."  But  this  no  one  believed,  and 
apprehension  grew  constantly  more  acute  as  time  went  on, 
while  much  impatience  was  displayed  at  the  delay  of  the 
relief  column  in  moving  on  Peking.  Another  need  for  haste 
was  the  known  murders  of  missionaries  and  their  converts, 
which  still  went  on  in  various  districts  of  China. 

The  earliest  trustworthy  news  from  Peking  reached 
Europe  on  the  last  day  of  July,  in  the  receipt  of  the  following 
telegram  from  Sir  Claude  M.  Macdonald,  which  contained 
satisfactory  information  that  the  envoys  were  still  alive: — 
"British  Legation,  Peking,  June  20  to  July  16  repeatedly 
attacked  by  Chinese  troops  on  all  sides.  Both  rifle  and 
artillery  fire.  Since  July  16  an  armistice,  but  a  cordon  is 
strictly  drawn  on  both  sides  of  the  position.  Chinese  barri- 
cades close  to  ours.  All  women  and  children  in  the  British 
legation.  Casualties  to  date,  62  killed,  including  Captain 


250  THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA 

Strouts.  A  number  of  wounded  in  hospital,  including  Captain 
Halliday.  Rest  of  legation  all  well,  except  David  Oliphant 
and  Warren,  killed  July  21.  MACDONALD." 

General  Chaffee,  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  American  forces,  had  reached  Taku  the  night 
before,  and  at  once  reported  that  preparations  for  the  relief 
movement  were  being  actively  pushed.  Orders  from  Wash- 
ington were  returned  to  "  advance  without  delay,"  and  imme- 
diately afterward  the  march  began.  It  was  known  that  the 
Chinese  were  entrenching  themselves  at  certain  points  on 
the  road  to  Peking,  and  an  encounter  took  place  at  Pei-tsang, 
a  point  twelve  miles  from  Tien-tsin,  on  August  5.  Here 
the  Chinese,  some  30,000  strong,  were  strongly  entrenched, 
flooded  land  protecting  their  left.  The  allied  forces  num- 
bered about  16,000,  of  whom  6,000  were  Japanese.  The 
latter  bore  the  brunt  of  the  battle  that  followed,  and  behaved 
admirably,  charging  on  and  carrying  the  works  and  bearing 
the  chief  loss  in  the  assault.  On  the  following  day  the  allies 
reached  Yang-tsun,  an  important  strategic  point  about  twelve 
miles  farther  on. 

Here  the  Chinese  occupied  seven  lines  of  entrenchments, 
200  feet  apart.  Falling  back  on  these  successively,  they 
continued  their  fire  for  several  hours,  the  allies  shelling  the 
place  vigorously.  They  then  advanced  and  carried  it  by 
storm.  In  this  assault  the  American  and  British  troops 
occupied  the  post  of  honor  and  drove  out  the  enemy  from 
their  works,  the  Russians  and  French  aiding,  while  the  Jap- 
anese were  in  reserve.  The  enemy,  after  considerable  loss, 
retreated  in  a  panic,  and  was  too  demoralized  to  offer  any 
further  opposition  during  the  march  to  Peking,  which  now 
proceeded  without  interruption. 

At  a  conference  of  commanders,  held  August  12,  it 
was  decided  that  the  allied  force  should  concentrate  within 
five  miles  of  Peking  on  August  14,  and  should  assault  on 


THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA  251 

August  1 5 .  The  attack,  however,  began  early  in  the  morn- 
ing of  the  1 4th — the  allies  having  marched  nearly  to  Peking 
on  the  previous  day,  in  four  parallel  columns,  Japanese  on 
the  north,  Russians  on  the  centre,  Americans  and  British  on 
the  south.  The  Russians  and  the  American  cavalry  became 
involved  with  the  enemy,  with  the  result  of  precipitating  the 
plans  of  the  allies ;  and  early  on  the  i4th  the  Japanese  attacked 
the  east  gate  of  the  Tartar  (or  Manchu)  city,  where  they  met 
a  heavy  fire  for  several  hours.  Meanwhile  the  Americans 
made  a  lodgment  on  the  east  wall  of  the  Tartar  city;  and 
the  Russians,  beginning  the  assault  at  2  A.  M.,  and  forcing 
the  east  gate  of  the  Tartar  city  after  fourteen  hours'  bom- 
bardment, made  the  first  entry  into  that  city.  These  opera- 
tions of  the  Americans  and  Russians  seem  to  have  drawn 
the  Chinese  away  from  the  Sha-ho  or  southeast  gate  of  the 
Chinese  city,  and  the  British,  breaking  it  down  and  entering 
it  unopposed,  cleared  that  part  of  Peking.  They  then  moved 
through  the  streets,  screened  from  the  enemy's  fire  by  the 
walls  of  the  Tartar  city,  until  being  signaled  to  from  that 
part  of  the  top  of  the  city  wall  which  was  held  by  the 
legations,  they  came  about  3  P.  M.  to  the  Watergate.  General 
Gaselee,  with  some  of  his  staff  and  about  seventy  men  of  the 
British  force,  rushed  across  the  almost  dry  moat  at  the  foot 
of  the  city  wall,  and  through  the  muddy  channel  of  the  water- 
gate  entered  the  enclosure  which  the  company  of  foreigners 
had  held  for  two  months  against  the  furious  mob  and  the 
Chinese  army,  and  rescued  them  from  the  terrible  situation 
in  which  they  had  so  long  been  held.  The  Americans  under 
General  Chaff ee,  coming  from  the  east  wall  of  the  Tartar  city, 
entered  by  the  same  Watergate  about  two  hours  later. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  we  are  in  this  work  especially 
concerned  with  the  Japanese,  some  account  of  their  behavior 
during  the  attack  on  Peking  will  be  of  interest,  and  we  may 
fitly  .quote  certain  details  from  the  description  given  by 


252  THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA 

George  Lynch,  the  war  correspondent  and  author  of  "The 
Path  of  Empire,"  who  accompanied  the  Japanese  on  the 
march  to  Peking.  He  says: — 

'  The  first  thing  about  the  Japanese  soldiers  that  struck 
me  was  that  they  marched  well.  The  heat  was  terrific, 
and,  owing  to  a  certain  amount  of  confusion  among  the 
various  forces  and  the  narrowness  of  the  path  across  that 
swampy  country,  the  men  had  to  march  during  the  hottest 
part  of  the  day.  Very  few  Japanese  fell  out,  and  it  appeared 
as  if  they  were  possessed  of  those  qualities  which  enable  a 
rikishaw  man  to  run  his  thirty  miles  a  day.  Their  food  was 
almost  altogether  rice,  which  as  often  as  not  they  seemed  to 
eat  cold.  This  extremely  simple  diet  is  unquestionably  an 
enormous  advantage  to  an  army  in  the  field.  Their  com- 
missariat and  transport  arrangements  were  practical  and 
workmanlike,  and  their  field  hospital  was,  I  think,  generally 
admitted  to  be  better  than  that' of  any  of  the  other  forces. 
There  was  a  neatness  and  compactness  about  their  whole 
outfit  that  was  characteristic.  They  appeared  to  have 
selected  from  the  European  armies  the  pick  of  things  that 
suited  them.  Some  things  they  were  not  accustomed  to. 
For  instance,  I  have  seen  Jap  'Tommies'  trudging  along 
sturdily,  carrying  their  European  boots  in  their  hands  and 
walking  in  their  bare  feet  or  in  the  light  straw  sandals  to 
which  they  had  been  accustomed  at  home. 

"  The  first  companies  halted  within  200  yards  of  the  gate, 
and  those  arriving  soon  filled  up  the  street.  Suddenly^  a 
terrific  fire  burst  from  the  windows  of  the  high  gatehouse 
and  the  summit  of  the  wall,  and  like  a  squall  of  hail  the  bullets 
swept  down  the  street.  Although  the  Chinese  firing  was  very 
wild,  this  first  volley  did  considerable  execution.  Sappers 
were  ordered  forward  to  blow  up  the  gate.  General  Fuki- 
shima  said  to  me,  '  In  less  than  twenty  minutes  we  will  have 
the  gate  blown  up,  and  then  we  will  assault.'  The  men  were 


THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA  253 

ordered  up  the  street  to  be  prepared.  This  they  did  at  the 
double,  singing  and  cheering  as  they  went  under  a  very  hot 
fire. 

"There  was  a  bridge  just  outside  the  gatehouse,  and  a 
clear  open  space  around  it,  without  a  particle  of  cover.  Across 
this  ten  gallant  little  Japs  tried  to  go  one  after  the  other  to 
where  their  comrades  had  been  shot  down,  but  every  one  of 
the  ten  was  killed.  There  was  no  trace  of  fear  or  hesitancy 
about  their  comrades;  a  hundred — five  hundred — would 
have  gone  just  as  gayly  to  sudden  death  if  the  order  was 
given ;  but  General  Fukishima  saw  clearly  that  it  would  mean 
useless  expenditure  of  life  to  continue  the  attempt.  It  was 
very  exasperating,  however,  to  have  to  abandon  it.  There 
were  all  these  little  men,  bursting  with  eagerness  and  excite- 
ment, and  there  was  the  competition  of  this  great  interna- 
tional military  tournament  to  be  the  first  in  Peking — first  to 
relieve  the  legations,  if  they  still  held  out.  The  general 
ordered  retirement,  and  determined  to  clear  the  gatehouse 
and  wall  by  shelling  it. 

"  The  next  six  hours  presented  one  of  the  most  pictur- 
esque scenes  I  ever  have  witnessed  in  war.  There  were  sixty- 
four  guns  playing  on  that  gate,  some  firing  shrapnel  only, 
some  firing  time-fuse,  some  impact  shells.  It  was  a  bright, 
clear  day,  without  a  cloud  in  the  sky.  The  shells  kept 
'  whooping '  over  our  heads. 

"  General  Fukishima  had  determined  to  make  another 
attempt  to  blow  up  the  gate  as  soon  as  the  darkness  would 
give  cover  to  his  engineers,  I  had  just  dropped  off  to  sleep 
when  I  was  awakened  by  a  loud  explosion,  quickly  followed 
by  another.  I  knew  what  that  meant:  the  gate  was  being 
blown  up  at  last. 

"  In  a  few  seconds,  outside  the  doors,  the  Japs  were  pass- 
ing up  at  the  double.  Everything  was  awake  now.  They 
were  running  forward  with  their  '  One,  two,  one,  two '  war 


254  THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA 

chant.  The  Chinese  had  opened  fire  again  from  the  wall, 
almost  as  hot  as  that  wherewith  they  had  greeted  us  in  the 
morning.  The  Japanese  had  to  get  along  by  creeping  close 
to  the  houses.  It  was  a  fine  night  and  the  moon  had  just 
risen.  There  was  no  use  in  returning  the  Chinese  fire.  On 
they  went  on  both  sides  of  the  street,  taking  advantage  of 
every  projecting  corner.  Gusts  of  bullets  swept  down  the 
street.  Then  the  men  halted  at  the  last  corner.  There  was 
a  broad  open  space  until  the  gatehouse  itself  was  reached. 
The  fire  was  very  severe  on  the  bridge.  The  Japs  were  pressed 
close  to  the  wall,  behind  every  coign  of  protection.  But 
how  they  did  enjoy  it!  How  they  sang  and  cheered!  It 
was  sufficient  to  shout  'Jow  ju  Nippon!'  (Long  live  Japan), 
and  a  ringing  cheer  answered." 

Mr.  Lynch  goes  on  to  describe  the  daring  rush  of  the 
Japanese  through  the  inner  gate  and  along  the  streets, 
despite  the  Chinese  fire  from  the  wall,  and  their  final  coming 
on  a  picket  of  the  Russians,  who  had  evidently  got  in  before 
them,  and  who  told  them  that  the  legations  were  relieved— 
but  the  extracts  given  will  serve  to  show  the  inspiring  dash 
of  the  little,  soldiers  under  fire. 

The  defence  of  the  Peking  legations  by  their  inmates 
should  have  place  in  history  in  the  same  rank  for  bravery 
and  endurance  with  that  of  the  Lucknow  Residency.  The 
severity  of  the  attack  to  which  the  defenders,  who  all  had 
taken  refuge  in  their  strongest  structures,  were  subjected, 
was  evidenced  by  some  of  the  legation  buildings  in  the 
vicinity,  which  were  riddled  and  many  of  the  walls  almost 
shot  down  by  continuous  rifle-fire  from  loopholes  in  walls 
within  150  feet.  The  French  and  Italian  legations  were 
almost  entirely  demolished.  Hundreds  of  acres  of  native 
houses  had  been  burned.  The  defenders  had  not  suffered 
from  actual  starvation,  though  for  weeks  reduced  to  daily 
rations  of  rice  and  one  pound  of  horseflesh.  They  reported 


THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA  255 

that  the  Tsung-li-yamen  had  repeatedly  made  treacherous 
attempts  to  throw  them  off  their  guard.  The  last  attempt 
was  a  message  on  the  day  before  their  rescue  assuring  them 
that  orders  had  been  issued  forbidding,  on  pain  of  death,  any 
firing  on  their  buildings;  after  which  at  nightfall  the  attack 
was  renewed  simultaneously  from  all  sides  on  all  the  legations 
'and  was  continued  all  night.  Some  time  before  dawn  they 
caught  the  welcome  sound  of  guns  in  the  distance,  which 
renewed  their  courage  to  continue  fighting.  The  firing  on 
the  legations  was  kept  up  until  the  relief  force  had  actually 
gained  an  entrance  within  the  city  walls.  The  relieving 
troops,  on  their  appearance,  -were  received  with  wild  enthu- 
siasm by  the  men  and  women  who  had  with  hopeful  courage 
and  endurance  through  weary  wreeks  awaited  their  coming. 

The  total  losses  within  the  legation  compounds  during 
the  siege  were  reported  as  seventy-five  dead  and  120  wounded; 
nearly  all  the  casualties  were  among  the  military  defenders, 
who  all  showed  extraordinary  gallantry  in  fighting,  and 
much  engineering  skill  in  selecting  and  seizing  vantage  points 
on  the  adjoining  city  wall  and  in  rearing  defences  of  bricks, 
stones,  and  sand-bags.  They  were  reported  to  have  killed 
3,000  or  more  of  the  besiegers.  The  soldiers  to  whom  this 
gallant  defence  was  due  were  aided  by  the  civilians,  including 
the  missionaries,  all  of  whom  showed  great  courage  and 
resolution  in  the  defence. 

The  international  troops  lost  no  time  in  taking  posses- 
sion of  the  city,  driving  the  Chinese  troops  and  the  Boxers 
from  precinct  after  precinct,  with  much  destruction  of  life 
and  loss  of  property  by  conflagration,  so  that  before  Septem- 
ber i  they  held  complete  possession,  the  whole  city  being 
occupied  and  the  imperial  palace  put  under  guard.  Hopes 
were  entertained  of  capturing  the  emperor  and  the  Dowager 
Empress,  but  it  proved  that  they  had  fled  with  the  court  to 
Hsi-Ngan-fu,  or  Singan,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  empire, 


256  THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA 

600  miles  to  the  westward,  from  which  point  negotiations 
were  soon  begun.  The  "Forbidden  City,"  long  sacred  to 
the  imperial  family,  was  soon  invaded  by  low-born  foreign 
feet,  and  much  looting  of  its  treasures  took  place,  no  part 
being  closed  against  the  plunderer,  of  which  fraternity  the 
invading  army  furnished  many  representatives.  At  the 
same  time  the  country  for  a  long  distance  around  the  city 
was  scoured  by  detachments  of  infantry  and  cavalry  and  all 
Chinese  in  arms  were  vigorously  dealt  with. 

A  proposition  to  evacuate  Peking  was  soon  made  by  the 
Russians,  with  which  the  United  States  agreed.  But  as  the 
other  powers  were  not  ready  to  join  them,  the  occupation 
continued.  Negotiations  went  on  somewhat  actively  with 
the  emperor  and  his  advisers,  looking  to  the  settlement  of 
terms  for  the  future  safety  of  foreign  diplomats  and  indem- 
nity for  the  losses  sustained.  This  proved  a  very  difficult 
task,  and  months  passed  in  fruitless  efforts,  during  which 
the  capital  of  China  was  held  as  a  captured  city.  The  occu- 
pation continued,  in  fact,  for  a  full  year.  Count  von  Walder- 
see,  the  German  soldier  who  had  been  appointed  commander 
of  the  allied  forces,  left  Peking  on  June  3,  1901,  but  guards 
were  retained  there  for  some  months  later.  A  considerable 
force  of  British,  French,  Italians,  and  Germans  continued 
to  occupy  the  disturbed  region,  chiefly  around  Tien-tsin.  The 
Americans  had  withdrawn  except  a  small  legation  guard, 
and  the  Russians  had  left  Peking  months  before,  contenting 
themselves  with  the  occupation  in  force  of  Manchuria.  The 
return  of  the  imperial  court  was  delayed  till  the  following 
autumn. 

The  punishment  of  China  for  the  attack  on  the  legations 
was  severe.  Several  of  the  leaders  of  the  insurrection  atoned 
for  their  acts  by  execution,  and  others  were  banished  and 
otherwise  severely  punished.  The  treaty  of  peace  and 
indemnity,  as  finally  agreed  upon  between  China  and  the 


THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA  257 

powers,  was  signed  September  7,   1901.     The  following  is  a 
summary  of  its  most  important  provisions: 

Demanding  infliction  of  the  punishments  agreed  on  for 
those  guilty  leaders  of  the  Boxers  who  have  not  yet  suffered 
the  penalty. 

Stipulating  that  an  indemnity  from  China  fixed  at  (aboutx 
$337,000,000  shall  be  paid  to  the  foreign  powers  during  the 
thirty-nine  years  ensuing,  with  interest  at  4  per  cent. — the 
required  amount  being  secured  from  the  foreign  customs,  the 
likin  (internal  transit  dues),  and  the  salt  tax. 

Prohibiting  import  during  the  two  ensuing  years  of  arms 
And  munitions  of  war. 

Suspending  for  the  ensuing  five  years  the  government 
examinations  for  office  in  all  the  centres  of  Boxer  revolt  and 
outrage. 

Razing  the  Chinese  forts  at  Taku;  permitting  establish- 
ment of  foreign  military  posts  on  the  road  from  the  sea  to  the 
capital;  and  granting  to  foreign  governments  the  right  to 
maintain  military  guards  at  their  legations. 

Prohibiting  membership  in  any  societies  whose  character 
or  purpose  is  anti-foreign. 

Providing  for  the  requisite  amendments  to  the  commer- 
cial treaties. 

Providing  that  in  all  dealings  with  foreign  affairs  the 
Tsung-li-yamen  shall  give  place  to  a  regularly  organized  For- 
eign Office  on  the  European  model,  with  fewer  members  and 
with  clearly  defined  powers  and  functions. 

Under  the  agreement  the  troops  were  required  to  evacu- 
ate public  places,  including  the  Forbidden  City  and  the  Sum- 
mer Palace  before  September  17;  and  all  the  expeditionary 
troops  in  the  provinces,  except  the  permanent  garrisons,  tc 
be  withdrawn  by  September  22. 

Two  expiatory  actions,  in  addition  to  the  punishment 
of  leaders  of  the  outbreak,  remained  to  be  performed,  Chins 

17 


258  THE  BOXER  OUTBREAK  IN  CHINA 

being  required  to  send  embassies  to  Japan  and  to  Germany 
to  express  her  humble  regrets  for  the  murder  of  officials  of 
these  powers  in  the  streets  of  Peki.ig.  That  to  Berlin  to  expi- 
ate the  assassination  of  the  German  minister  was  headed  by 
a  prince  of  the  empire  and  was  conducted  with  the  greatest 
solemnity  and  show  of  contrition.  With  these  ceremonies 
the  punishment  of  China  ended,  except  that  involved  in  the 
payment  of  the  indemnity,  which  was  to  extend  over  a  con- 
siderable number  of  years  and  was  likely  to  bear  heavily  on 
the  resources  of  the  empire.  The  results  of  the  outbreak, 
however,  were  more  far-reaching  than  this.  Russia  took 
advantage  of  it  to  gain  a  firm  hold  on  Manchuria,  a  fact  which 
led,  a  few  years  later,  to  the  war  between  Japan  and  Russia, 
with  all  that  it  involved. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

The  Belligerents  and  the  Other  Powers 

The  Czar  Issues  his  Proclamation — Formal  Declaration  by  the  Mikado — The  Neu- 
tral Power.> — Their  Proclamations — Diplomatic  Alliances — Political  Interests 
— How  War  has  been  Formally  Declared  in  Other  Times  and  Countries. 

IMMEDIATELY  after  the  night  attack  by  the  Japanese  on 
the  Russian  warships  at  Port  Arthur,  proclamations  of 

war  were  issued  by  Russia  and  Japan.  Russia's  was 
first  made  public  February  10,  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  the  Offi- 
cial Messenger,  in  the  following  "supreme  manifest" 

"  By  the  grace  of  God  we,  Nicholas  II,  Emperor  and  auto- 
crat of  all  the  Russias,  etc.,  make  known  to  all  our  loyal  sub- 
jects : 

"  In  our  solicitude  for  the  maintenance  of  peace  which  is 
dear  to  our  heart,  we  made  every  exertion  to  consolidate  tran- 
quility  in  the  Far  East.  In  these  peaceful  aims  we  signified 
assent  to  the  proposals  of  the  Japanese  government  to  revise 
agreements  regarding  Korean  affairs  existing  between  the 
two  governments.  However,  the  negotiations  begun  upon  this 
subject,  were  not  brought  to  a  conclusion  and  Japan,  without 
awaiting  the  receipt  of  the  last  responsive  proposals  of  our 
government,  declared  the  negotiations  broken  off  and  diplo- 
matic relations  with  Russia  dissolved. 

"  Without  advising  us  of  the  fact  that  the  breach  of  such 
relations  would  in  itself  mean  an  opening  of  warlike  opera- 
tions, the  Japanese  government  gave  orders  to  its  torpedo 
boats  suddenly  to  attack  our  squadron  standing  in  the  outer 
harbor  of  the  fortress  of  Port  Arthur.  Upon  receiving 
reports  from  the  Viceroy  in  the  Far  East  about  this,  we 


260       THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS 

immediately  commanded  him  to  answer  the  Japanese  challenge 
with  armed  force. 

"  Making  known  this  our  decision  we,  with  unshaken 
faith  in  the  help  of  the  Almighty  and  with  a  firm  expectation 
of  and  reliance  upon  the  unanimous  willingness  of  all  our 
loyal  subjects  to  stand  with  us  in  defence  of  the  fatherlands 
ask  God's  blessing  upon  our  stalwart  land  and  naval  forces. 

"Given  at  St.  Petersburg,  January  27,  1904,  A.  D.  (new 
calendar,  February  9,  1904,)  and  in  the  tenth  year  of  our 
reign.  Written  in  full  by  the  hand  of 

"His  Imperial  Majesty,  NICHOLAS." 

And  the  same  day  Count  Cassini,  the  Russian  Ambassa- 
dor, called  on  Secretary  Hay  and  left  with  him  the  announce- 
ment of  the  Czar,  declaring  war  on  Japan.  The  Count's  com- 
munication with  the  Department  was  in  writing.  It  was  a  dis- 
patch from  the  Russian  Foreign  Office  to  the  Ambassador,  and 
was  couched  in  French,  being  substantially  as  follows: 

"  During  the  night  of  February  8-9  a  detachment  of  Jap- 
'anese  torpedo  boats  unexpectedly  attacked  the  Russian  squad- 
ron lying  at  anchor  in  the  outer  roadstead  of  Port  Arthur. 
This  attack,  being  the  beginning  of  military  operations,  obliges 
the  Imperial  Government  to  take  immediate  measures  to  re- 
ply by  armed  force  to  the  challenge  issued  against  Russia.  Be 
good  enough  to  inform  the  Government  of  the  United  States." 

Japan's  statement  was  a  longer  document,  in  the  form  of 
an  imperial  proclamation  at  Tokio: 

"  We,  by  the  grace  of  Heaven,  Emporer  of  Japan,  seated 
on  the  throne  occupied  by  the  same  dynasty  since  time  imme- 
morial, hereby  make  proclamation  to  all  our  loyal  and  brave 
subjects,  as  follows: 

"  We  hereby  declare  war  against  Russia,  and  we  command 
our  army  and  navy  to  carry  on  hostilities  against  her,  in  obedi- 
ence to  their  duty,  'with  all  their  strength;  and  we  also 


THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS       261 

command  all  our  competent  authorities  to  make  every  effort, 
in  pursuance  of  their  duties,  to  attain  the  national  aim  with 
all  the  means  within  the  limits  of  the  law  of  nations. 

"  We  have  always  deemed  it  essential  in  international  rela- 
tions, and  have  made  it  our  constant  aim,  to  promote  the 
pacific  progress  of  our  empire  in  civilization,  to  strengthen  our 
friendly  ties  with  other  States,  and  to  establish  a  state  of  things 
which  would  maintain  enduring  peace  in  the  Far  East,  and 
assure  the  future  security  of  our  dominion  without  injury  to 
the  rights  or  interests  of  other  Powers.  Our  competent 
authorities  have  also  performed  their  duties  in  obedience  to  our 
will,  so  that  our  relations  with  all  the  Powers  had  been  steadily 
growing  in  cordiality.  It  was  thus  entirely  against  our  expec- 
tation that  we  have  unhappily  come  to  open  hostilities  against 
Russia. 

"The  integrity  of  Korea  is  a  matter  of  the  gravest  con- 
cern to  this  empire,  not  only  because  of  our  traditional  rela- 
tions with  that  country,  but  because  the  separate  existence  of 
Korea  is  essential  to  the  safety  of  our  realm.  Nevertheless, 
Russia,  in  disregard  of  her  solemn  treaty  pledges  to  China  and 
her  repeated  assurances  to  other  Powers,  is  still  in  occupation 
of  Manchuria,  has  consolidated  and  strengthened  her  hold  on 
those  provinces,  and  is  bent  upon  their  final  annexation. 

"  And  since  the  absorption  of  Manchuria  by  Russia  would 
render  it  impossible  to  maintain  the  integrity  of  China,  and 
would,  in  addition,  compel  the  abandonment  of  all  hope  of 
peace  in  the  Far  East,  we  were  determined  in  those  circum- 
stances to  settle  the  question  by  negotiations  and  to  secure 
thereby  permanent  peace.  With  that  object  in  view,  our. com- 
petent authorities  by  our  order  made  proposals  to  Russia,  and 
frequent  conferences  were  held  during  the  last  six  months. 

"  Russia,  however,  never  met  such  proposals  in  a  spirit  of 
conciliation,  but  by  wanton  delays  put  off  a  settlement  of  the 
serious  questions,  and  by  ostensibly  advocating  peace  on  one 


262      THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS 

hand,  while  on  the  other  extending  her  naval  and  military  pre- 
parations, sought  to  accomplish  her  own  selfish  designs. 

"  We  cannot  in  the  least  admit  that  Russia  had  from  the 
first  any  serious  or  genuine  desire  for  peace.  She  rejected  the 
proposals  of  our  government.  The  safety  of  Korea  was  in 
danger  and  the  interests  of  our  empire  were  menaced.  The 
guarantees  for  the  future,  which  we  failed  to  secure  by  peace- 
ful negotiations,  can  now  only  be  obtained  by  an  appeal  to 
arms. 

"It  is  our  earnest  wish  tha'o,  by  the  loyalty  and  valor  of 
our  faithful  subjects,  peace  may  soon  be  permanently  restored 
and  the  glory  of  our  empire  preserved." 

It  was  generally  agreed  that  the  war  between  Russia  and 
Japan  was  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  two  powers  to  answer  the 
vexing  Far-Eastern  question.  The  final  disposition  cf  the 
great  Chinese  Empire  was  a  problem  which  for  years  had 
agitated  the  diplomatic  circles  of  all  progressive  nations,  and 
though  the  combatants  were  at  \var  ostensibly  over  sovereignty 
rights  in  Manchuria  and  Korea,  there  was  no  hestiation  in 
saying  that  China  was  hanging  in  the  balance.  John  Hay,  the 
American  Secretary  of  State,  seemed  to  realize  the  situation 
more  clearly  than  any  other  man,  and  took  a  brave  step  for 
the  preservation  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  This  move,  and  the 
attitude  of  the  United  States  in  general  are  discussed  in  a 
later  chapter,  since  America,  though  interested  in  the  situa- 
tion, looks  at  it  from  a  view  point  unlike  that  of  the  other 
powers. 

England,  France,  and  Germany  were  the  most  interested 
spectators  of  the  conflict.  With  India  bordering  Tibet,  and 
England's  possession  of  Hong  Kong  and  Wei-hai-wei,  with 
France's  interest  in  Annam  and  Tonkin,  and  her  desire  to 
secure  a  foothold  in  China  proper,  with  Germany's  occupation 
of  Kiao-Chau  looking  toward  her  dream  of  commercial  suprem- 
acy, the  nations  of  Europe  may  well  be  said  to  have  watched 


THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS  263 

with  jealous  intensity  the  beginning  and  progress  of  the  strug- 
gle. Holland,  more  remote  from  the  scene  of  action,  in  her 
East  Indian  islands,  was  less  actively  concerned;  her  fear  being 
only  of  an  universal  war  which  might  strip  her  of  colonies 
and  suck  her  into  the  German  Empire.  The  "  Balance  rf 
Power,"  construed  in  relation  to  the  Far  East,  meant  main 
taining  the  existing  concessions  in  China;  consequently  eaa. 
power  was  zealous  to  see  that  no  other,  under  cover  of  the 
battle  din,  made  selfish  aggressions.  In  keeping  with  this 
attitude,  every  nation  of  importance  had  issued  proclamations 
of  strict  neutrality  within  a  few  days  of  February  eighth,  and 
those  most  interested  eagerly  accepted  the  spirit  of  the  note 
which  Secretary  Hay  issued  from  Washington  on  the  tenth  of 
that  month. 

An  important  question  which  presented  itself  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  between  Russia  and  Japan  was  whether  it 
would  be  possible  to  keep  the  struggle  from  involving  the 
whole  of  Europe  in  the  Asiatic  conflict.  Treaties,  alliances 
and  covert  understandings  bound  almost  all  of  the  Powers  of 
the  modern  world  in  complex  relations  to  each  other,  and  the 
easily  offended  dignity  of  the  continental  nations  gave  rise  to 
a  well-founded  fear  that  some  slight,  or  unintentional,  indiscre- 
tion might  provoke  a  universal  war.  Both  the  combatants 
had,  previous  to  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  secured  the  sup- 
port of  two  of  the  most  influential  Powers.  The  Anglo-Japa- 
nese alliance,  consummated  the  previous  year,  secured  to  the 
Island  Empire  the  material  and  immediate  assistance  of  Great 
Britain's  army  and  navy,  provided  that,  in  case  of  a  war, 
Japan  should  find  herself  opposed  by  two  or  more  great 
Powers. 

On  the  other  hand,  Russia,  on  the  occasion  of  the  visit  of 
President  Faure  to  St.  Petersburg,  proclaimed  the  existence  of 
a  secret  treaty  which  had  not  previously  been  recognized,  and 
about  the  provisions  of  which  there  was  considerable  specula- 


264       THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS 

tion  in  diplomatic  circles.  Its  exact  terms  had  never  bee*/ 
made  public,  and  it  had  not  come  before  the  French  Parlia- 
ment for  ratification,  but  it  was  generally  believed  to  bind  both 
France  and  Russia  in  much  the  same  manner  as  England  was 
bound  by  her  alliance  with  the  Mikado.  It  contained,  accord- 
ing to  M.  Delcasse,  an  important  clause  by  which  no  Asiatic 
Power,  except  Japan,  was  to  be  recognized  as  a  second  bellig- 
erent opposing  Russia. 

The  situation  was  further  complicated  by  the  change 
which  had  taken  place  in  the  relations  of  France  and  Great 
Britain.  These  two  Powers,  to  whom  traditional  enmity  had 
been  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation,  relieved  by 
occasional  epochs  of  pacific  and  often  cordial  understanding 
had,  previous  to  the  accession  of  Edwrard  VII. ,  treated  each 
other  somewhat  coolly.  That  astute  monarch,  however,  who, 
had  been  indifferently  expected  by  the  many  to  prove  a  mere 
dilettante  king,  began  almost  immediately  on  taking  the  reins 
of  government,  to  establish  and  preserve  cordial  and  pleasant 
relations  with  his  powerful  neighbors.  An  exchange  of  visits 
with  President  Loubet,  and  the  quiet  cultivation  of  amenities 
writh  the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies,  went  very  far  toward 
bringing  about  a  friendly  feeling  between  Paris  and  London. 

Though  Russia  was  somewhat  chagrined  at  this  flirtation 
of  her  ally  with  her  enemy's  ally,  the  more  sober-minded  were 
greatly  pleased  by  the  circumstance.  There  was  no  doubt  that 
under  these  conditions  both  England  and  France  would  be  less 
ready  to  take  hostile  sides,  and  would  be  more  anxious  to  pre- 
serve the  peace  of  Europe. 

The  Emperor  of  Germany  had  surprised  almost  every 
follower  of  his  original  and  enterprising  career  by  keeping  an 
absolute  silence.  As  head  of  the  triple  alliance,  he  was  able  to 
influence  the  position  of  Austria  and  Italy,  and  his  compara- 
tively small  holdings  in  the  Far  East  permitted  him  to  lie  quiet 
and  watch  the  turn  of  events  without  the  necessity  of 


THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS       265 

committing  himself.  While  it  was  generally  admitted  that. 
Japan's  triumph  would  be  more  to  the  advantage  of  Germany 
than  that  of  her  land-seeking  enemy,  the  Kaiser  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  offer  small  sops  to  Russia  by  suppressing  seditious  lit- 
erature, which  was  in  the  habit  of  being  published  in  Germany 
and  transported  across  the  frontier  for  secret  dissemination 
among  the  revolutionaries  of  the  Czar's  empire,  and  the  Em- 
peror Alexander  Grenadier  Guards  at  Berlin  sent  a  magnifi- 
cent helmet  to  the  Czar,  their  honorary  colonel,  at  a  time  when 
the  action  could  not  fail  to  arouse  considerable  comment. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  Germany  looked  well  to  herself  and 
strengthened  her  hands  in  the  near  East  while  the  Cossack 
was  scouring  the  plains  of  Manchuria. 

By  suggestive  advices  poured  into  the  Sultan's  private  ear, 
the  Kaiser  endeavored  to  shape  matters  better  for  the  further- 
ance of  the  German  trade  in  Asia  Minor  and  for  the  promo- 
tion of  the  German  railway  in  Turkey,  which  would  eventually 
give  a  through  line  from  Hamburg  to  Persia  and  the  Indian 
trade.  Germany's  attitude  toward  the  Sultan  was  generally 
supposed  to  be  that  of  one  who  advises  the  mice  not  to  frisk 
too  carelessly  when  the  cat  is  away.  Russia's  attention  was 
well  occupied  in  the  struggle  with  her  formidable  little  rival, 
and  the  Sultan,  ever  watchful  of  his  opportunities,  seemed  in- 
clined to  throw  off  the  Russian  influence,  which  had  been 
weighing  so  heavily  upon  him.  An  arrangement,  by  which 
Austria  and  Russia  should  assist  Turkey  in  keeping  order  in 
Macedonia,  began  to  work  less  effectually  now  that  the  stronger 
hand  was  engaged  elsewhere,  and  Abdul  Hamid  seemed  in- 
clined to  put  off  with  vague  promises  instead  of  carrying  out 
his  part  of  the  agreement  to  preserve  order  and  protect  the  in- 
habitants from  outrages.  Germany's  advices,  as  head  of  the 
alliance  (which  contained  also  Austria  and  Italy),  probably  had 
more  weight  than  would  have  that  of  any  other  country,  with 
the  exception  of  Russia,  and  was  especially  opportune  in  view 


2r,r>       THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS 

of  the  fact  that  the  Slavic  people,  inhabiting  the  Balkan  pen- 
insula, felt  less  enthusiastic  about  resistance  now  that  their 
relative  and  friend  had  temporarily  taken  her  attention  from 
them. 

North  and  west  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  Norway,  Sweden  and 
Denmark,  had  been  waking  up  to  a  realization  that,  unless  they 
were  entirely  on  their  guard,  their  fate  might  become  that  of 
Finland.  Since  the  attainment  of  her  rank  as  a  naval  power, 
and  with  an  insistent  feeling  that  she  must,  sooner  or  later,  get 
a  greater  coast  line  and  better  access  to  the  sea,  Russia  had 
felt  hampered  in  the  East,  not  only  in  Siberia  and  in  the 
Crimea,  but  especially  on  the  Baltic.  It  was  said  that  in  1903 
the  Russian  Government  sent  military  engineers,  in  the  dis- 
guise of  peddlers,  through  Scandanavia  and  secured  accurate 
maps  of  every  portion  of  the  country  from  coast  to  coast,  and 
the  Russian  revolutionaries,  who,  for  their  views,  had  taken 
refuge  in  the  country  of  the  Norsemen,  had  contributed  not  a 
little  to  putting  these  peoples  on  their  guard  against  the  day 
when  Russia  might  wish  to  absorb  them. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  therefore,  Russia  found 
small  sympathy  in  these  quarters.  As  was  natural,  the  Czar 
found  friends  and  well  wishers  among  the  Hungarians,  Czechs, 
and  other  Slavonic  races  of  the  dual  Empire.  Her  every 
move,  however,  was  watched  both  by  friend  and  foe  with  the 
keenest  anxiety,  and  there  were  not  a  few  who  wished  that  this, 
the  most  impressive  power  in  Europe,  might  meet  with 
reverses. 

The  beginning  of  this  war,  was  not  unlike  that  of  other 
wars.  Until  recent  years  there  has  been  no  fixed  form  among 
the  nations  for  declarations  of  war.  In  ancient  times  tradi- 
tion made  enemies  of  the  different  races,  and  whenever  any 
two  members  of  opposing  tribes  chanced  to  meet  there  was  a 
battle  on  the  spot,  which  soon  involved  the  countrymen  of 
both.  At  a  later  date  verbal  proclamation  through  a  herald 


THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS      267 

was  substituted  for  these  forms  of  defiance.  This  continued 
to  be  practised  till  the  sixteenth  century,  and  there  are  two  in- 
stances of  it  so  recent  as  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

In  1635  Louis  XIII  sent  a  herald  to  Brussels  to 
declare  war  against  Spain,  and  twenty-two  years  afterward 
Sweden  declared  war  against  Denmark  through  the  mouth  of 
a  herald  sent  to  Copenhagen.  But  even  prior  to  this  time 
influence  had  been  at  work  which  undermined  the  old  usages. 
After  the  close  of  the  ioo-years'  war,  the  civil  wars  in  England, 
the  consolidation  of  the  great  European  states,  and,  above 
all,  the  fierce  rancor  engendered  in  the  religious  wars,  had  all 
contributed  to  discredit  the  old  forms  of  feudal  chivalry. 
Written  declarations  were  substituted  for  proclamation  by 
heralds,  and  as  early  as  1588  the  great  armada  attacked  Eng, 
land  without  declaration  at  all.  The  great  legal  writers 
still  lent  their  support  to  the  older  usage,  as  where  Grotius 
declared  that  the  voice  of  God  and  nature  alike  orders  men  to 
renounce  friendship  before  embarking  in  war.  But,  in  spite 
of  their  influence,  the  practice  fell  off. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  custom 
sprang  up,  and  was  generally  adopted,  of  issuing  a  manifesto 
or  notice  of  the  commencement  of  war,  not  necessarily  to  the 
enemy,  but  to  the  diplomatic  agents  of  the  other  nations,  who 
"yere  required  to  observe  the  laws  of  neutrality.  The  opinions 
of  the  great  jurists  of  this  and  the  last  century,  since  the  close 
of  the  Napoleonic  wars  in  1815,  have  been  more  equally 
divided  on  the  necessity  of  declaration.  Several  of  the  leading 
continental  authorities  still  maintain  that  some  form  of  notice 
to  the  enemy  is  imperative.  Others  take  the  opposite  view. 

In  neither  the  war  with  England  in  1812,  nor  the  war 
with  Mexico  in  1846,  did  the  United  States  issue  either  a 
manifesto  or  declaration.  Of  the  smaller  wars  down  to 
1870,  in  which  a  European  power  was  engaged  on  one  side  or 
the  other,  England's  unimportant  contest  with  Persia  in  1838 


263       THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS 

affords  what  seems  to  be  a  solitary  instance  of  a  declaration 
being  made.  The  opium  war  of  1840,  the  Italian  war  of  1847- 
49,  the  Anglo-Persian  war  of  1856,  as  well  as  the  Danish 
straggle  about  Schleswig-Holstein  in  1863,  and  the  war 
between  Brazil  and  Uruguay  in  the  following  year,  all  com- 
menced by  acts  of  hostility,  preceded,  indeed,  in  several 
instances  by  diplomatic  notes  and  manifestoes,  but  in  no  case 
heralded  by  a  formal  declaration. 

In  November,  1853,  after  prolonged  negotiations  had 
already  taken  place,  the  Ottoman  Porte  protested  against 
Russian  claims  and  intimated  its  intention  of  going  to  war. 
To  this  Emporer  Nicholas  responded  in  a  very  elaborate 
formal  declaration.  Hostilities  did  not  actually  commence  till 
November  4th,  three  days  after  the  Czar's  proclamation,  of 
which  the  Sultan  had  thus  time  to  become  aware.  Relations 
between  the  Czar  and  the  English  and  French  Courts  became 
more  and  more  strained  during  the  next  few  weeks.  On  Feb- 
ruary 8,  1854,  the  Russian  Minister  left  England.  On  the 
2ist,  Nicholas  issued  a  manifesto  complaining  of  the  unfriendly 
attitude  of  England  and  France.  On  the  2yth  Captain  Black- 
wood  was  sent  to  St.  Petersburg  with  an  ultimatum,  his  instruc- 
tions being  to  wait  six  days  for  an  answer.  Before  this  time 
had  elapsed,  the  Emperor  declined  to  give  any  reply,  but  the 
Russian  Foreign  Minister  stated  privately  that  his  master,, 
would  not  declare  war. 

On  March  22nd,  a  message  from  the  Queen  was  read  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  declaring  war.  On  the  3ist,  according 
to  a  quaint  old  custom,  the  high  sheriff  and  other  chief  digni- 
taries of  London  attended  in  their  robes,  and  proclaimed  the 
war  from  the  steps  of  the  Exchange.  • 

In  the  Austro-Italian  war  of  1859,  the  Emperor's  ulti- 
matum was  presented  on  April  23rd,  two  days  afterward 
Victor  Emmanuel  announced  to  the  army  the  outbreak  of  war, 
and  on  the  25th  operations  commenced. 


THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS      269 

Our  Civil  War  presents  an  interesting  instance  of  the 
modern  tendency  to  rely  on  facts  rather  than  forms. 

As  the  North  never  recognized  the  Southern  States  as 
being  other  than  rebels,  of  course  they  were  precluded  from 
declaring  war  against  them,  but  in  a  way  which  may  be  "read- 
ily summarized,  a  state  of  war  came  to  be  recognized  as 
having  in  point  of  fact  supervened  on  a  state  of  insurrection. 
The  Secession  movement,  which  began  in  South  Carolina, 
speedily  spread  to  the  other  Southern  States.  Then  the  first 
shot  was  fired  from  the  batteries  of  Fort  Sumter  on  the  Star 
of  the  West  attempting  to  enter  Charleston  with  reinforce- 
ments. Notwithstanding  this,  Lincoln  characterized  it  as 
insurrectionary.  Nine  days  later  Charleston  surrendered  to 
the  Confederates,  and  war  votes  were  then  asked  for.  Letters 
of  marque  were  issued  by  the  South  and  a  blockade  proclaimed 
by  the  North.  Larger  war  votes  were  asked,  and  Mr. 
Seward  announced  in  a  letter  to  the  American  minister  at 
Paris  that  the  Government  had  "accepted  the  Civil  War  ar> 
an  inevitable  necessity." 

England  and  France  thereupon  recognized  the  rights  of 
the  South  as  belligerent  states,  and  issued  proclamations  of 
neutrality.  This  action  they  justified  on  the  ground  that, 
although  there  had  been  no  declaration  of  war,  the  credits 
voted  and  the  proclamation  of  a  blockade  were  facts  consistent 
only  with  a  state  of  war,  not  of  mere  insurrection. 

The  Seven- Weeks  war  of  1866  began  with  the  rupture, 
on  June  i2th,  of  diplomatic  relations  between  Prussia  and 
Austria,  followed  on  the  same  day  by  a  declaration  of  war  by 
the  former  power  against  Saxony,  whose  territory  was  entered 
on  June  i5th.  On  June  i6th  Austria  intimated  her  intention 
of  supporting  Saxony,  and  this  Prussia  interpreted  as  a  declar- 
ation of  war.  A  bellicose  manifesto  addressed  "To  My 
Armies"  was  issued  by  Emperor  Francis  Joseph.  On  June 
22nd,  Prince  Fritz  Carl  complained  of  the  violation  of  the 


2 yo       THE  BELLIGERENTS  AND  THE  OTHER  POWERS 

Silesian  frontier  by  the  Austrians,  without  any  formal  declar- 
ation of  war. 

This  complaint  is  a  curious  example  of  historical  retribu- 
tion, a  precisely  similar  protest  having  been  made  one  hundred 
and  twenty  years  earlier  by  Austria  against  the  Prussian  inva- 
sion of  Silesia.  The  red  prince  followed  up  his  complaint  by 
formally  declaring  war  against  Austria,  a  measure  which  Italy 
had  taken  days  previously.  Four  years  later  Prussia  was 
again  involved  in  a  war  which  was  destined  to  complete  the 
unification  of  Germany,  to  which  the  Seven- Weeks  war  had 
been  the  first  step. 

On  July  15,  1870,  it  was  announced  by  the  French 
ministry  that  the  King  of  Prussia  had  refused  to  receive  the 
Emperor's  ambassador,  and  that  the  German  minister  was 
preparing  to  leave  Paris.  Large  war  credits  were  asked,  as, 
in  the  face  of  these  facts,  France  could  no  longer  maintain 
peace.  On  the  i6th  the  slighted  French  minister  reached 
Paris  and  the  German  representative  left.  France,  thereupon, 
with  a  self-assertion  characteristic  of  the  popular  feeling  of  the 
time,  issued  a  declaration  of  war,  a  copy  of  which  was  handed 
by  the  charge  d'affaires  at  Berlin  to  Count  Bismarck,  by  whom 
it  was  laid  before  the  Parliament  of  the  North  German  (Don- 
federation  on  the  3<Dth.  England,  on  the  igth,  had  recog- 
nized the  existence  of  war  by  her  proclamation  of  neutrality. 

Among  the  struggles  of  less  importance  the  Ashantee 
war  of  1873,  the  Transvaal  war,  the  French  wars,  were  all 
begun  without  declaration.  In  the  Egyptian  war,  Arabi 
Pasha  was  required,  on  July  10,  1882,  to  surrender  the  forts 
of  Alexandria,  and  on  his  failure  to  do  so  within  the  time  speci- 
fied the  bombardment  began. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

Korea,  the  Bone  of  Contention 

Korea  compared  with  Italy — Its  Racial  Character — Its  Independence  Recognized 
— Physical  Character  of  the  Country — Dangers  of  Navigation — Skill  of  the 
Artisans — The  Name  of  Korea — Seclusion  of  the  People — Population — 
Russian  Expansion — Japanese  Colonies — How  the  Country  was  Opened — 
The  Attack  on  the  Japanese  Legation — Treaties  of  Commerce  with  Western 
Countries — Reaction — Japanese  in  the  Palace — Attack  by  the  Chinese — 
War  Prevented  by  a  Treaty — Steps  of  Progress  in  Korea — American  Enter- 
prise— Russian  and  Japanese  Interests  in  Korea — The  Helpless  Position  of 
the  Koreans — The  Weakness  of  the  Government — Perilous  Position  of  the 
Missionaries. 

KOREA  is  a  part  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  but  extends 
as  a  peninsula  between  China's  inland  seas  and  the 
Sea  of  Japan,  very  much  as  Italy  lies  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Adriatic.  It  is  about  six  hundred 
miles  in  length,  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  miles  wide 
from  sea  to  sea.  The  position  of  Seoul,  the  capital,  may  be 
compared  to  that  of  Rome,  which  is  half  way  between  the 
north  and  the  south  of  Italy.  Korea,  however,  is  but  a 
truncated  Italy;  in  the  north  it  has  no  valley  of  the  Po, 
no  rich  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  albeit  it  has  a  sort  of  equiva- 
lent of  the  Alps  in  a  mountain  barrier  reaching  from  the  Sea 
of  Japan  to  the  Yellow  Sea,  from  the  port  of  Vladivostok 
to  Port  Arthur.  These  Korean  Alps  are  covered  with 
woods  and  snow,  and  rise  to  the  height  of  nearly  ten  thousand 
feet.  Italy  has  always  been  a  battlefield  of  nations,  and 
has  long  been  subdivided  into  kingdoms,  duchies  and  prin- 
cipalities. Two  races  only  have  established  themselves  in 
Korea — the  Mongol  or  Manchu  race,  the  continental  race; 
and  the  Malay  or  Japanese,  the  island  race.  Korea  has 

271 


272  KOREA,  -THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION 

from  time  immemorial  formed  a  single  kingdom,  and  has 
been  inhabited  by  a  single  nation,  a  single  race,  formed 
from  the  union  of  two  races.  The  continental  element  has, 
however,  been  predominant;  politically  and  religiously,  the 
Korean  people  have  lived  under  the  discipline  of  China  as  a 
vassal  state  ever  since  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
It  has  been  a  kingdom  of  mandarins,  though  it  had  its  own 
monarch  and  its  autonomy;  it  had  to  pay  an  annual  tribute 
to  China  and  to  render  annual  homage  to  the  suzerian  Empe- 
ror of  China,  with  all  the  forms  of  an  old  ceremonial.  A 
somewhat  similar  relation  existed  with  Japan, ,  by  which  it 
had  been  conquered  early  in  the  Christian  era. 

After  the  war  between  Japan  and  China,  this  state 
of  things  was  altered.  The  first  article  of  the  Treaty  of 
Shimonoseki  reads  thus: 

"  China  recognizes  definitively  the  entire  independence 
and  autonomy  of  Korea;  and,  in  consequence,  the  payment 
of  tribute  and  performance  by  Korea  with  regard  to  China 
of  ceremonies  and  formalities  in  derogation  of  this  inde- 
pendence and  this  autonomy  will  cease  completely  in  [future." 

As  for  Japan,  it  was  careful  not  to  stipulate  at  the  same 
time  its  own  renunciation  of  the  rights  which  it  had  long 
claimed  over  Korea  as  a  result  of  its  ancient  conquest. 

The  Hermit  Kingdom  enjoys  a  geographical  position 
of  positively  romantic  charm.  The  coast  is  beautiful  and 
perilous;  unnumbered  shipwrecks  have  testified  to  Nature's 
jealous  guardianship  of  a  people  which  for  centuries  dreaded 
Intercourse  with  the  outside  world  as  it  might  have  dreaded 
the  plague.  On  both  its  east  and  west  seaboard  coasts,  its 
shores  rise  in  precipitous  mountains,  and  are  flanked  by 
numerous  uninhabited  and  desolate  rocky  islands.  On  the 
east  of  the  southern  promontory  there  is  the  one  port  of 
Fusan,  opposite  Shimonoseki,  Japan.  It  was  by  this  port  the 
Japanese  were  wont  of  old  to  make  predatory  incursions 


KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION  273 

into  the  country.  It  is  now  one  of  the  few  ports  opened  by 
treaty  to  Japanese  trade.  From  it  there  is  a  road  leading 
direct  to  the  capital,  through  the  provinces  of  Julia  and 
Giungsang,  between  which  provinces  the  road  runs  between 
high,  precipitous,  and  unscalable  mountains;  and  the  path 
is  there  so  narrow  that  one  man  can  block  it.  Here  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  armies  confronted  each  other,  nearly 
three  centuries  ago,  neither  being  able  to  damage  the  other. 
A  railroad  is  in  process  of  construction  between  these  two 
cities. 

The  coast,  for  full  sixty  miles  northeast  of  Fusan,  is  a 
mountainous  and  desert  region;  but  the  shores  in  the  vicinity 
of  this  port  are  populous  and  covered  with  many  villages,  on 
the  banks  of  the  numerous  streams  which  here  flow  into  the 
sea.  The  beautifully  clear  waters  of  the  wide  and  djep  Yalu 
separate  Korean  from  Manchurian  soil,  along  its  course 
from  its  source  in  Chang-bai-shan  to  the  point  where  it  falls 
into  the  Yellow  Sea.  The  Tumen,  also  rising  in  the  high- 
lands of  Chang-bai-shan,  separates  the  northern  border  of 
Korea  from  both  Chinese  and  Russian  Territory.  The  Japan 
Sea  divides  it  from  Japan,  and  the  Yellow  Sea  washes  its 
south  and  S9uthwest  coasts.  The  interior  is  essentially  a 
land  of  mountains  and  navigable  rivers,  the  principal  moun- 
tain chain  running  south  from  Chang-bai-shan,  in  a  direction 
at  right  angles  to  that  great  watershed  of  eastern  Asia.  East 
of  the  lower  Yalu  is  the  high,  serrated,  and  extensive  range 
of  Bengma,  affording  almost  boundless  forest  shelter  to 
innumerable  game,  large  and  small;  fowl  and  quadruped, 
ruminant  and  carnivorous.  The  nooks  and  corners  of  the 
Gumgang  range  to  the  east  are  crowded  with  numerous  and 
Weil-filled  temples  or  monasteries — the  monks  of  the  East 
having  for  many  centuries  been  as  fully  alive  to  the  grand 
and  the  beautiful,  indeed  perhaps  more  so,  than  their 
monastic  brethren  of  the  West. 

18 


274  KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  Korea  the  tides  are  estimated 
at  from  two  to  six  feet,  but  on  the  western  coast,  in  the  Yellow 
Sea,  they  rise  from  eighteen  to  thirty  feet.  There  are  about 
three  thousand  miles  of  seacoast  line,  and  the  country  is 
bounded  on  the  south  and  west  by  a  large  number  of  islands, 
which  constitute  a  beautiful  and  picturesque  archipelago. 
Navigation  is  dangerous  because  of  the  tremendous  currents 
and  counter-currents  among  the  islands,  and  also  because 
of  the  fogs  which  settle  over  the  Yellow  Sea  during  certain 
months  of  the  year.  The  seas  and  estuaries  swarm  with 
enormous  quantities  of  excellent  fish  in  great  variety;  but 
the  Koreans  themselves  are  either  too  timid  or  too  lazy  to 
follow  the  sea  for  a  livelihood,  and  the  fishermen  of  that 
country  are  crowded  out  by  the  Japanese,  who  net  and  cure 
immense  quantities  of  fish,  which  are  dried  and  salted  and 
sent  into  the  interior  of  Korea  and  exported  to  Japan.  The 
climate  of  Korea  is  delightful,  as  a  rule.  Generally,  it  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  mountain  regions  of  North  Carolina. 

The  people  have  profited  by  the  vicinity  of  China,  and 
have  made  considerable  progress  in  the  arts.  Three  centu- 
ries or  more  ago  they  were  able  to  build  ships  two  hundred 
feet  long  and  covered  with  thin  plates  of  iron.  They  were 
also  skillful  in  metal-work,  in  weaving,  in  pottery  and  the 
making  of  jewels,  and  Japan  owes  the  introduction  of  these 
arts  to  Korean  artisans.  The  Koreans  are  descibed  as  a 
robust  people,  amiable  and  pleasure-loving,  kindly  and  gen- 
erous, and  not  natively  inclined  to  war.  They  are  described 
by  a  recent  writer  as  "  peculiarly  proficient  in  the  art  of  doing 
nothing  gracefully."  Their  main  occupation  is  agriculture, 
the  soil  being  fertile  and  well  tilled.  Rice,  barley,  wheat, 
and  various  vegetables  and  fruits  are  grown,  and  cattle, 
horses,  pigs,  and  poultry  kept,  but  sheep  and  goats  are  not 
raised. 

The  name  Korea. or  Corea.is  derived  from  the  Gao^owli 


KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION  275 

of  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  The  first  syllable  was 
ultimately  dropped,  and  the  kingdom  was  known  as  Gaoli 
even  before  the  seventh  century.  The  descendants  of  those 
who  survived  the  wholesale  butcheries  of  the  Tang  empress 
Woo,  pronounce  this  name  Gori,  which  name  was,  a  couple 
of  centuries  ago,  written  Korea  in  the  West.  The  Koreans 
now  call  themselves  the  Gori  people,  but  have  long  given 
the  name  Chosen — the  ancient  Chaosien — to  their  country. 
In  1297  this  name  was  changed  to  Dai  Han  or  Tai  Han,'  and 
the  King  of  Korea  assumed  the  title  of  Emporer,  to  indicate 
his  equality  to  the  rulers  of  China,  Japan  and  Russia.  The 
Koreans  have  for  long  centuries  been  subject  to  invasion 
from  the  Chinese  and  Mongols  on  the  west  and  south  and  the 
Japanese  on  the  east,  the  invasions  from  Japan  already 
spoken  of  being  matched  by  others  from  China.  The  first 
of  these  was  in  the  second  century  B.  C.,  and  there  were 
others  of  later  date,  the  land  being  overrun  and  conquered, 
but  not  held.  The  only  modern  evidence  of  these  conquests 
is  the  tribute  which  Korea  has  long  paid. 

Inhabited  by  a  people  whose  traditions  run  back  for 
several  thousand  years,  the  "Land  of  the  Morning  Calm," 
which  is  one  of  the  poetical  titles  of  Korea,  has  for  ages  been 
inhabited  by  a  race  of  people  living  in  the  most  profound 
seclusion  and  the  deepest  superstition.  Out  of  its  many  tribal 
wars  and  invasions  Korea  gradually  evolved  a  single  king- 
dom, bringing  its  many  units  under  definite  control,  and  has 
maintained  for  centuries  a  more  or  less  composite  and  stable 
authority.  Under  a  dynasty  that  has  occupied  the  throne 
for  five  hundred  years,  the  people  successfully  resisted  alien 
influences;  but  at  last  they  are  awakening  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  what  civilization  means.  Of  course  their  gains 
are  accompanied  by  some  losses.  The  introduction  of  Western 
inventions  to  Korea  has  gradually  eliminated  from  contem- 
porary Korean  life  many  customs  which,  associated  with  the 


276  KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION 

people  and  their  traditions  from  time  immemorial,  imparted 
much  of  the  repose  and  picturesqueness  which  so  long  dis- 
tinguished the  little  kingdom. 

Korea  has  but  a  small  population — probably  only  ten 
millions  of  inhabitants;  a  number  which  represents  about 
one  hundred  inhabitants  per  square  mile.  Japan  is  looking 
to  Korea  as  an  outlet  for  her  ever-increasing  population; 
she  has  about  forty-five  millions  of  inhabitants,  and  the  rate 
of  increase  is  very  great.  It  is  natural  that  Japan  should, 
on  account  of  its  proximity  and  of  the  character  of  its  popu- 
lation, consider  Korea  a  suitable  land  for  the  creation  of 
colonies.  Russia,  on  her  part,  has  been  considering  Siberia 
and  the  Far  East  as  an  outlet  for  her  population,  already 
go  large,  and  which  will  soon  attain  formidable  numbers. 
The  Siberian  Railroad,  the  occupation  of  Manchuria,  and 
the  acquisition  of  Vladivostok  and  of  Port  Arthur  on  the 
Japan  and  Chinese  Seas,  are  visible  signs  of  the  move- 
ment of  Russia's  expansion;  with  this  difference  between 
the  Russian  colonies  and  the  Japanese:  the  first  may  be 
called  military  colonies,  the  second  really  colonies  of  popu- 
lations given  to  all  the  arts  of  peace.  The  land  of  Japan 
proper  no  longer  suffices  for  its  inhabitants,  and  the 
population  increases  every  year  by  400,000  souls.  Since 
1598,  after  the  close  of  Japan's  second  war  with  Korea, 
there  have  been  Japanese  colonies  in  that  land;  there  were 
in  1903  from  20,000  to  30,000  Japanese  established  there, 
with  their  families.  This  emigration,  concentrated  at  first 
in  the  ports,  spread  widely  over  the  country;  and  it  would 
rapidly  augment  if  it  were  not  for  the  deplorable  administra- 
tion and  tyranny  of  the  Korean  officials.  Of  the  character 
and  methods  of  the  Japanese  in  Korea,  mention  has  been 
made  in  preceding  chapters. 

The  title  of  "Hermit  Kingdom"  well  expresses  the  posi- 
tion of  the  Korean  realm  until  quite  recent  times,  it  remain- 


KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION  277 

ing  closely  sealed  against  intercourse  with  foreigners  of  all 
nations  until  1876.  In  1866  an  American  trading  schooner 
called  the  General  Sherman  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Kore- 
ans, and  her  crew  and  passengers  murdered.  A  man-of-war, 
the  Wadiusett,  was  sent  to  obtain  satisfaction,  but  failed  to 
do  so.  In  1870  a  small  American  expedition  again  appeared 
and  while  negotiations  were  in  progress  the  Koreans  fired 
upon  a  surveying  party.  Thereupon  the  American  com- 
mander landed  his  troops  upon  the  island  of  Kiang  Hwa, 
destroyed  five  Korean  forts,  routed  the  army,  killing  three 
hundred  men,  and  then  retired,  with  the  result  that  Korea 
was  more  firmly  closed  against  foreigners  than  ever,  though 
the  United  States  had  taught  it  a  lesson  that  was  likely  to 
affect  its  future  action. 

The  young  king,  now  the  Emperor  Heui  Yi,  came  of  age 
in  1873,  and  succeeded  his,  cruel  and  conservative  father. 
In  1875  some  sailors  from  a  Japanese  man-of-war  were  fired 
upon  while  drawing  water  at  Kiang  Hwa.  In  reprisal  the 
Japanese  captain  destroyed  a  fort  and  killed  a  number  of 
Koreans,  and  his  government  followed  up  the  incident  by 
sending  a  fleet  under  General  Kuroda  to  demand  satisfaction 
and  offer  the  Koreans  the  alternative  of  a  treaty  of  commerce 
or  a  war.  The  former  was  chosen,  China,  on  being  appealed 
to  by  the  Koreans,  refusing — as  she  had  done  on  several 
similar  occasions — to  have  anything  to  do  with  the  action 
of  her  nominal  vassal.  A  treaty  was  therefore  signed  on 
February  26,  1876,  between  Korea  and  Japan,  and  from  this 
moment  dates  the  opening  of  Korea  to  foreign  intercourse. 
On  this  occasion,  too,  the  suzerainty  of  China  was  formally 
set  aside,  without  any  protests  on  her  part — indeed,  with 
her  express  recognition,  since  she  refused  to  interfere.  Article 
I.  of  this  treaty  reads  as  follows:  "Chosen  being  an  inde- 
pendent State  enjoys  the  same  sovereign  rights  as  Japan." 
Chemulpo,  Fusan,  and  Won-san  were  opened  by  this  treaty 
to  Japanese  trade. 


278  KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION 

The  king  himself  was  in  favor  of  extending  the  same 
privileges  to  other  nations  at  their  request,  but  the  conserva- 
tive party  prevented  him.  In  1882  fresh  overtures  were  made 
by  foreign  nations,  and  the  reactionaries  took  alarm.  Led 
by  a  "scholar"  named  Pe  Lo-kuan,  an  insurrection  broke 
out  in  Seoul,  directed  chiefly  against  the  Japanese,  as  the 
promoters  of  foreign  intercourse.  Several  members  of  the 
Japanese  Legation  were  murdered  in  the  streets,  the  legation 
itself  was  attacked,  and  Consul  Hanabusa  and  his  staff  were 
at  last  compelled  to  cut  their  way  through  the  mob  and  make 
for  the  palace,  where  they  hoped  to  find  refuge.  Here,  how- 
ever, the  gates  were  shut  against  them,  so  they  fought  their 
way  out  of  the  city  with  the  greatest  pluck,  and  walked  all 
night  to  Chemulpo,  where,  to  escape  violence,  they  put  to 
sea  in  a  native  boat.  Fortunately  the  British  surveying 
vessel,  the  Flying  Fish,  saw  them,  and  conveyed  them  to 
Nagasaki.  This  happened  in  July,  1882.  Of  course  the 
Japanese  government  took  instant  action,  but  with  great 
moderation  began  by  merely  sending  Mr.  Hanabusa  back  to 
Seoul  with  a  strong  escort  to  demand  reparation.  This  was 
abjectly  offered,  and  a  Chinese  force  which  arrived  with 
unusual  promptitude  suppressed  the  rebellion,  executed  a 
number  of  the  leaders,  and  caused  their  mangled  bodies  to 
be  publicly  exposed.  A  sum  of  500,000  dollars  was  accepted 
by  the  Japanese  as  indemnity,  but  was  subsequently  forgiven 
to  Korea  in  consequence  of  her  inability  to  pay  it.  Next 
year  treaties  with  Korea  were  concluded  by  the  United  States, 
France,  England,  and  Germany,  and  since  that  date  the 
Hermit  Kingdom  has  been  open  to  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

The  result  of  this  was  to  bring  on  an  era  of  violence  in 
Japan,  the  revolutionary  party  showing  its  hand  in  1885  in 
an  attempt  to  murder  Ming  Yong-ik,  a  nobleman  who  was 
bitterly  opposed  to  foreign  intercourse.  The  leaders  of  the 
revolutionists  proceeded  to  the  palace,  secured  the  person 


KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION  279 

of  the  king — who  seems  to  have  been  in  sympathy  with 
them — and  sent  word  to  the  Japanese  minister,  asking  for 
a  guard  to  protect  the  royal  person.  A  detachment  of  130 
Japanese  soldiers  was  accordingly  sent,  and  the  party  in 
control  executed  five  of  the  conservative  ministers.  This 
brought  about  a  reaction,  supported  by  the  Chinese,  2,000 
of  whose  troops  marched  to  the  palace  and  fired  on  the  Jap- 
anese guard.  The  latter  held  their  own,  but  to  prevent 
further  bloodshed  the  king  put  himself  in  the  hands  of  the 
Chinese.  As  a  result  the  Japanese  retired,  and,  finding  them- 
selves surrounded  by  enemies,  fought  their  way  through 
the  streets  and  walked  as  before  to  Chemulpo,  where  they 
chartered  a  steamer  and  returned  to  Japan. 

This  affair  nearly  brought  on  war  between  China  and 
Japan,  but  the  difficulty  was  finally  settled  by  diplomacy, 
and  a  treaty  was  signed,  in  which  China  agreed  to  withdraw 
her  troops  from  Korea  and  to  punish  the  officers  who  had 
made  the  attack  on  the  Japanese.  Either  nation  was  to 
have  the  right  to  send  troops  there  to  preserve  order,  but 
when  order  was  restored  such  troops  were  to  be  withdrawn. 
It  was  the  disregard  of  the  terms  of  this  treaty  by  China  in 
the  case  of  the  revolt  of  1894  that  brought  on  the  war  between 
China  and  Japan  already  described. 

In  regard  to  the  results  of  foreign  intercourse  during 
the  short  period  since  Japan  opened  her  ports  to  the  world, 
a  brief  extract  from  the  recent  work  by  Angus  Hamilton, 
entitled  "Korea,"  may  suffice  as  evidence  of  their  pronounced 
character  :— 

"  The  old  order  is  giving  way  to  the  new.  So  quickly 
has  the  population  learned  to  appreciate  the  results  of  foreign 
intercourse  that  in  a  few  more  years  it  will  be  difficult  to 
find  in  Seoul  any  remaining  link  with  the  capital  of  yore. 
The  changes  have  been  somewhat  radical.  The  introduction 
of  telegraphy  has  made  it  unnecessary  to  signal  nightly  the 


28o  KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION 

safety  of  the  kingdom  by  beacons  from  the  crests  of  the 
mountains.  The  gates  are  no  longer  closed  at  night ;  no  more 
does  the  evening  bell  clang  sonorously  throughout  the  city 
at  sunset,  and  the  runners  before  the  chairs  of  the  officials 
have  for  some  time  ceased  to  announce  in  strident  voices  the 
passing  of  their  masters.  Improvements  which  have  been 
wrought  also  in  the  condition  of  the  city — in  its  streets  and 
houses,  in  its  sanitary  measures  and  in  its  methods  of  com- 
munication— have  replaced  these  ancient  customs.  An  excel- 
lent and  rapid  train  runs  from  Chemulpo;  electric  trams 
afford  quick  transit  within  and  beyond  the  capital;  even 
electric  lights  illuminate  by  night  some  parts  of  the  chief  city 
of  the  Hermit  Kingdom.  Moreover,  an  aqueduct  is  men- 
tioned; the  police  force  has  been  reorganized;  drains  have 
come  and  evil  odors  have  fled. 

"Reforms  in  education  have  also  taken  place;  schools 
and  hospitals  have  been  opened;  banks,  foreign  shops  and 
agencies  have  sprung  up;  a  factory  for  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain  ware  is  in  operation;  and  the  number  and  variety 
of  the  religions  with  which  foreign  missionaries  are  wooing 
the  people  are  as  amazing  and  complex  as  in  China.  The 
conduct  of  educational  affairs  is  arranged  upon  a  basis  which 
now  gives  every  facility  for  the  study  of  foreign  subjects. 
Special  schools  for  foreign  languages,  conducted  by  the  gov- 
ernment under  the  supervision  of  foreign  teachers,  have 
been  instituted.  Indeed,  most  striking  changes  have  been 
made  in  the  curriculum  of  the  common  schools  of  the  city. 
Mathematics,  geography,  history,  besides  foreign  languages, 
are  all  subjects  in  the  courses  of  these  establishments,  and 
only  lately  a  special  school  of  survey  under  foreign  direction 
has  been  opened.  The  enlightenment  which  is  thus  spread- 
ing throughout  the  lower  classes  cannot  fail  to  secure  some 
eventual  modification  of  the  views  and  sentiments  by  which 
the  upper  classes  regard  the  progress  of  the  country.  As  a 


KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION  281 

sign  of  the  times,  it  is  worthy  to  note  that  several  native 
newspapers  have  been  started;  while  the  increase  of  business 
has  created  the  necessity  for  improved  facilities  in  financial 
transactions." 

It  is  of  interest  to  learn  of  the  pronounced  activity  of 
•  Americans  in  Korean  affairs.  Their  trade  is  said  to  be  very 
important,  "  composite  in  its  character,  carefully  considered, 
protected  by  the  influence  of  the  minister,  supported  by  the 
energies  of  the  American  missionaries,  and  controlled  by  two 
firms,  whose  knowledge  of  the  wants  of  Korea  is  just  forty- 
eight  hours  ahead  of  the  realization  of  that  want  by  the 
Korean."  In  Seoul  the  electric  car  company,  the  electric 
light  company  and  the  water  company  have  all  been  created 
by  American  enterprise.  It  was  an  American  who  secured 
the  concession  for  the  Seoul-Chemulpo  Railway,  and  subse- 
quently sold  it  to  the  Japanese  company,  which  is  now  in 
control.  The  French  and  the  Belgians  are  both  active. 
The  German  colony  is  said  to  be  small  and  insignificant. 
The  position  of  the  English  is  characterized  as  "destitute 
of  any  great  commercial  or  political  significance." 

The  difficulties  between  Japan  and  Russia  had  their 
origin  in  a  conflict  of  personal  interests  in  1897.  Korea  had 
become  the  field  of  many  enterprising  companies;  it  was 
thought  that  its  gold  mines,  its  petroleum,  its  forests,  could 
be  used  and  become  attractions  for  European  capital.  In 
1897  a  Russian  company  obtained  the  concession  of  immense 
forests  in  the  valleys  of  the  Tumen  and  the  Yalu;  it  was  the 
time  when  Russia  and  Japan  had  signed  a  protocol  which, 
so  to  speak,  divided  Korea  between  them.  When  a  second 
protocol  was  signed,  which  delivered  Korea  completely  to 
Japanese  enterprise,  it  was  thought  that  the  Russian  conces- 
sion of  1897  would  be  practically  abandoned;  but  in  1901  a 
Russian  mission  was  formed,  which  appeared  in  1902  in  the 
valley  of  the  Yalu,  marked  the  trees  in  the  forest,  and  pre- 


282  KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION 

pared  for  their  systematic  cutting.  This  mission  established 
itself  in  a  Korean  city,  where  foreigners  have  no  right  to 
reside,  built  a  telegraphic  line,  and  made  plans  for  a  railway 
which  should  unite  the  Yalu  River  to  the  railway  lines  of 
Manchuria.  It  obtained  in  August,  1903,  the  monopoly  of  the 
log-rafting  on  the  Yalu,  and  a  piece  of  land  at  Yongampo, 
and,  as  already  stated,  soon  manifested  an  intention  to  assume 
military  control  of  the  district. 

The  Emperor  of  Korea  had  not  a  word  to  say  to  all  this, 
but  the  minister  of  Japan  naturally  claimed  similar  advan- 
tages for  his  own  country,  and,  among  others,  the  opening  of 
Wiju,  the  port  of  the  Yalu.  A  constant  struggle  for  influence 
began,  and  the  relations  of  Japan  and  Russia  became  more 
and  more  tense.  The  Japanese  asked  for  the  opening  of  all 
the  ports  and  the  cities  still  shut  against  foreigners;  for  rail- 
ways, telegraphs,  administrative  reforms.  The  Russians,  on 
their  side,  fortified  more  and  more  their  position  in  Manchuria, 
and  indicated  a  growing  desire  for  possession  of  the  land 
which  separated  Vladivostok  from  Port  Arthur.  Such  was 
the  state  of  affairs  in  the  years  preceding  the  war  between 
these  two  countries,  whose  immediate  preliminaries  are 
elsewhere  dealt  with  at  length. 

The  position  of  Korea  in  regard  to  the  disputed  questions 
Mr.  Hamilton  describes  as  a  hopeless  one.  Unfortunately, 
the  government  of  Korea  is  powerless  to  prevent  either  the 
advance  of  Russia  or  the  steady  spread  of  Japanese  influence. 
She  possesses  neither  army  nor  navy  which  can  be  put  to  any 
practical  use,  and  she  is  in  that  position  in  which  a  country  is 
placed  when  unable  to  raise  its  voice  upon  its  own  behalf. 
The  army  numbers  a  few  thousand  men,  who  in  the  last  few 
years  have  been  trained  to  the  use  of  European  weapons. 
They  are  armed  with  the  Gras  (obsolete  pattern),  Murata, 
Martini  and  a  variety  of  muzzle-loading,  smooth-bore  rifles. 
Their  shooting  powers  are  most  indifferent,  and  they  lack 


KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION  283 

besides  the  qualities  of  courage  and  discipline.  There  is 
no  artillery,  and  the  cavalry  arm  is  confined  to  a  few  hundred 
men,  with  no  knowledge  of  horse-mastership  and  with  no  idea 
of  their  weapons  or  their  duties.  At  a  moment  of  emergency 
the  entire  force  of  mounted  and  dismounted  men  would 
become  utterly  demoralized.  There  are  numerous  general 
officers,  while  the  navy  is  composed  of  twenty-three  admirals 
and  one  iron-built  coal  lighter,  until  quite  lately  the  property 
of  a  Japanese  steamship  company. 

Of  the  man  who  might  do  something  materially  to  better 
the  condition  of  his  people,  the  emperor,  Mr.  Hamilton 
speaks  with  blended  approval  and  criticism.  Nominally,  it 
seems,  this  ruler  enjoys  the  prerogative  and  independence  of 
an  autocrat,  but  "in 'reality  he  is  in  the  hands  of  that  party 
whose  intrigues  for  the  time  being  may  have  given  them  the 
upper  hand,"  and  while  he  often  lends  his  support  to  reforms, 
he  devotes  himself,  on  the  whole,  willingly  enough  to  the 
corrupt  and  extravagant  life  of  a  court  in  which  unscrupulous 
leaders,  both  men  and  women,  stand  doggedly  for  reactionary 
measures.  For  the  future  of  Korea  a  radical  change  in  the 
character  of  the  government,  or  its  control  by  one  of  the 
nations  which  have  made  it  a  seat  of  war,  would  seem  to  be 
necessary.  Under  present  conditions  its  regeneration  must 
be  a  slow,  perhaps  a  hopeless,  problem. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Position  of  the  Chinese 

A  Fight  for  China — Chinese  Sympathy  for  Japan — The  Helpless  Empire — Rus- 
sian Help — Li  Hung  Chang  and  Russia — Port  Arthur  taken  from  Japan  by 
Russia — The  Slav  Secures  Manchuria — Massacre  of  Chinese — China  Loses 
Faith. 

ONE  of  the  most  competent  observers,  Henry  Norman, 
confidently  announced  that  the  war  was  fundament- 
ally a  fight  for  permanent  influence  over,  and  final 
ownership  of,  China.  That  country,  as  large  as  the  United 
States,  containing  more  than  six  times  as  many  inhabitants, 
was  fully  as  rich  a  prize  as  any  nation  could  strive  for.  With 
great  unexhausted  natural  resources,  and  a  dense  population 
of  industrious  labor,  the  eventual  ownership  of  China  prom- 
ised to  the  victor  greater  spoils  than  even  the  conquest  of 
India  gave  to  England.  China's  feelings,  nevertheless,  were 
not  much  considered.  Though  two  hostile  armies  were 
battling  on  her  threshold,  soil  which  belonged  to  her,  she 
was  not  strong  enough  to  put  them  to  the  door.  Centuries 
of  corruption  had  weakened  the  central  government  and 
given  her  piecemeal  into  the  power  of  her  mandarins.  Hav- 
ing long  held  the  foreigner  out  by  persistently  keeping  the 
door  closed,  once  he  had  seen  her  weakness,  he  took  prac- 
tically what  he  *pleased.  Thus  England,  Germany  and 
France  had  gained  footholds;  thus  Russia,  up  to  this  time 
the  most  powerful  influence  at  Peking,  had  gained  the  lion's 
share  and  appropriated  Manchuria. 

At  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  Chinese  troops  were  dis- 
covered massed  conveniently  near  the  Great  Wall.     Though 


the  empire  declared  itself  neutral  it  expressly  excepted  respon- 
sibility for  certain  "provinces  occupied  by  European  troops." 
The  Japanese  had  suddenly  gained  ascendency  at  her  court 
and,  in  spite  of  the  Chino- Japanese  war  of  ten  years  before, 
nearly  all  Chinese  prayed  for  victory  on  the  Japanese  arms. 
Their  early  victories  were  celebrated  in  Peking  with  fireworks 
and  posters,  and  in  New  York  the  Chinese  quarter  was 
decorated  in  honor  of  the  gallant  attack  on  Port  Arthur. 
In  all  the  disorder,  nevertheless,  it  was  felt  that  the  shrewd 
Dowager  Empress  had  an  intention  to  watch  less  apathetically 
than  usual  for  China's  opportunity.  What  it  was,  no  one 
felt  ready  to  say.  Possibly  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
the  East  must  make  a  stand  against  the  West,  or  be  over- 
whelmed; perhaps  for  revenge  on  Russia;  possibly  to  regain 
the  lost  province,  Manchuria,  which  the  samovar  and  the 
railroad  were  fast  tying  to  Siberia. 

Nothing  but  a  war  could  ever  recover  as  much  as  this, 
for  the  yielding  process  has  been  going  on  for  a  long  time. 
So  long  ago  as  the  seventeenth  century  Russian  travelers  and 
generals  invaded,  by  no  means  always  successfully,  the  Amur 
region,  and  in  1686  the  treaty  of  Nerchinsk  was  signed,  by 
which  the  upper  Shilka  was  ceded  to  Russia,  and  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Amur  basin  was  affirmed  entirely  to  China.  So 
matters  remained  for  nearly  two  centuries,  except  that  Rus- 
sian adventurers  located  themselves  on  the  coast  line  and 
that  Muravieff,  the  governor  of  eastern  Siberia,  found  a  way 
for  himself  down  the  Amur  to  the  sea,  contrary  to  every 
stipulation.  During  the  allied  invasion  of  north  China  in 
1860,  however,  advantage  was  taken  of  the  prostrate  condi- 
tion of  China  to  make  a  substantial  advance.  By  a  treaty 
concluded  between  the  two  powers  it  was  agreed  that  "the 
left  banks  of  the  river  Amur,  from  the  river  Argoun  to  its 
source,  shall  belong  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  and  its  right 
bank  down  to  the  Ussuri  to  China.  The  territory  situated 


2§6  POSITION  OF  THE  CHINESE 

between  the  river  Ussuri  and  the  sea,  as  up  to  the  present, 
shall  be  possessed  in  common  by  the  empires  of  China  and 
Russia,  until  the  frontier  between  the  two  states  shall  be 
denned." 

This  joint  occupation  of  territory  was  a  common  Russian 
prelude  to  absorption.  It  was  adopted  in  the  Japanese 
island  of  Saghalien.  As  it  was  with  Saghalien,  so  it  was 
with  the  territory  between  the  Ussuri  and  the  sea,  extending 
southward  from  the  Amur  River  to  the  northern  boundary 
of  Korea. 

This  was  a  large  mouthful  for  Russia  to  assimilate.  The 
distance  from  Europe  was  great,  and  much  careful  adminis- 
tration was  necessary  in  order  to  convert  the  existing  villages 
and  ports  into  towns  and  places  of  arms.  Under  the  foster- 
ing care  of  the  government  of  the  province,  Vladivostok 
developed  into  a  strong  citadel,  and  with  much  care  Russia 
so  protected  herself  in  her  new  possessions  as  to  be  practically 
safe  from  all  attack  on  the  side  of  China.  For  a  generation 
matters  of  construction  occupied  the  attention  of  the  Rus- 
sians to  the  exclusion  of  all  others,  and  it  was  not  until  peace 
was  declared  at  the  end  of  the  Chino-Japanese  war  that 
she  again  made  her  political  existence  felt.  Li  Hung  Chang, 
in  his  negotiations  with  the  Japanese  plenipotentiaries,  had 
agreed  to  cede  Japan  the  Liao-tung  peninsula,  including  Port 
Arthur.  At  once,  as  though  by  a  prearranged  plan,  Russia, 
having  France  and  Germany  at  her  back,  came  forward  with 
an  objection  and  insisted  that  the  possession  of  that  position 
by  Japan  "would  not  only  constitute  a  constant  menace  to 
the  capital  of  China,"  but  also  that  "  it  would  render  the  inde- 
pendence of  Korea  illusory. ' '  So  urgent  were  the  allied  pow- 
ers in  this  protest  that  Japan  deemed  it  wise  to  yield,  and  for 
some  counterbalancing  advantages  she  restored  to  China 
her  legitimate  spoils  of  war.  This  action  on  the  part  of 
Russia  was  the  first  intimation  to  the  outer  world  that  while 


POSITION  OF  THE  CHINESE  287 

siiently  consolidating  her  new  possessions  in  the  north  she  had 
been  incubating  plans  of  future  conquest. 

But  if  Russia  had  been  slow  in  maturing  her  plans  she 
now  showed  a  restless  activity  in  developing  them.  Fortu- 
nately for  her,  Li  Hung  Chang  was  in  power  at  Peking  at  the 
time,  and  through  the  good  offices  of  that  venal  statesman 
she  was  confidently  assured  that  any  proposals  she  might 
make  would  receive  a  favorable  hearing  at  the  Tsung-li-yamen. 
By  these  occult  means  she  obtained  the  right  to  construct  a 
railway  from  a  point  on  her  Siberian  frontier  to  Vladivostok, 
through  Chinese  Manchuria,  and  coupled  with  this  right  all 
the  privileges  pertaining  to  it.  But  the  master-stroke  was 
yet  to  come.  With  a  cynical  disregard  for  past  professions 
and  assurances  she  took  possession,  nominally  on  a  lease,  of 
Port  Arthur,  the  position  from  which  she  had  ousted  the 
Japanese,  in  full  defiance  of  political  considerations  which 
she  had  before  solemnly  protested  had  been  the  sole  motive 
of  her  earlier  action. 

Even  this  political  outrage,  however,  did  not  arouse  the 
politicians  at  Peking,  who  added  to  the  Russians  the  right  of 
connecting  Port  Arthur  by  railway  with  the  Siberian  system. 
In  Japan,  however,  the  act  created  widespread  indignation, 
and  was  naturally  regarded  as  a  gross  injustice  and  insult 
to  her  as  a  nation.  Of  course  the  occupation  was  accom- 
panied by  the  inevitable  assurance  by  which  it  was  affirmed 
that  Russia  had  no  intention  of  infringing  on  the  rights  of 
Chinese  sovereignty.  And  saying  this  she  immediately  began 
to  infringe  those  rights  by  virtually  appropriating  all  districts 
and  cities  through  which  the  railway  passed.  This  masterful 
action  of  the  Russians  was  too  open  and  palpable  to  make 
them  popular  among  the  people  of  the  country,  and  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  Boxer  movement  this  feeling  found  vent  in 
repeated  attacks  on  the  Russians  by  bands  of  local  militia 
more  or  less  organized.  To  crush  this  rebellious  action  Russia 


2 88  POSITION  OF  THE  CHINESE 

determined  to  make  a  signal  example  of  her  power  in  truly 
Oriental  fashion. 

Blagovestchensk  happened  to  be  the  place  where  events 
culminated  in  this  display  of  vengeance.  It  was  admitted 
that  the  Chinese  had  fired  on  isolated  Russians,  -and  as  the 
garrison  was  small  in  numbers  compared  with  its  possible 
assailants  the  commandant  issued  orders  that  the  Chinese 
residents  in  the  town  were  to  cross  the  Amur  to  the  Chinese 
shore.  But  means  of  transporting  them  were  not  at  hand  and 
with  callotis  brutality  the  Chinese  were  driven  into  the  waters 
of  the  river,  were  either  drowned  in  their  attempts  to  cross  or 
were  shot  down  on  their  trying  to  recover  the  bank.  In  this 
murderous  outrage  several  thousands  of  Chinese  perished,  and 
the  deed  naturally  left  a  bitter  memory  among  the  survivors. 

With  the  death  of  Li  Hung  Chang,  Russian  influence 
at  Peking  waned,  and  that  of  Japan  increased  greatly.  It  is 
a  notable  feature  of  Chinese  idiosyncrasies  that  they  always 
take  as  their  models  the  latest  enemies  by  whom  they  have 
been  vanquished,  and  just  as  they  placed  themselves  at  the 
feet  of  English  and  French  instructors  after  the  war  of  1860, 
so  at  the  conclusion  of  peace  writh  Japan  they  sought  to 
imitate  the  institutions  and  methods  of  their  conquerors. 
A  visit  of  Count  I  to  to  Peking  at  this  time  accentuated  the 
movement,  and  since  then  Japanese  instructors  have  drilled 
and  armed  the  Chinese  troops,  and  have  been  accepted  as 
authorities  on  all  scientific  and  learned  subjects.  These  were 
approximately  the  positions  of  the  two  powers  at  the  court 
of  Peking  when  war  began.  From  the  time  when  death 
removed  Li  Hung  Chang  from  the  counsels  of  the  Dowager 
Empress  passing  events  had  forced  upon  her  the  conviction 
that  the  precious  assurances  of  Russian  diplomatists  were 
too  often  falsified  by  the  event,  and  that  the  outcome  of  the 
past  series  of  negotiations  relating  to  Manchuria  had  resulted 
in  that  important  territory  being  virtually  wrested  from  the 
Chinese  crown. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

Germany's  Sympathetic  Silence 

Understanding  With  Russia — The  Kaiser  and  the  Czar — Germans  Hold  Russian 
Bonds — Enigma  of  the  United  States — German  Money  in  Kiao-Chau — 
Foreign  Policy — Increasing  Strength  of  the  Triple  Alliance — The  Herero  War 
— The  Colonial  Empire — Home  Expenses. 

THERE  were  not  a  few  students  of  the  grouping  of  Euro- 
pean powers  about  the  two  opponents,  who  believed 
the  sympathies  of  the  German  government,  as  well  as 
of  the  army  and  navy  circles,  to  be  with  Russia  in  this  war. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  Germany  joined  Russia  and  France 
at  the  close  of  the  Chino-Japanese  war,  in  1894,  in  wresting 
from  Japan  nearly  all  the  spoils  of  her  victory.  Since  then 
on  a  number  of  occasions  the  Teutons  more  or  .less  favored 
Russia  in  her  aggressive  Far- Asian  policy.  This  has  been  part 
and  parcel  of  an  amicable  understanding  which  was  the  per- 
sonal work  of  the  Kaise/  and  the  Czar.  If  it  had  not  been  for 
this  understanding,  we  might  say,  Germany  would  not  have 
been  permitted  to  enjoy  quiet  possession  and  exploitation  of 
the  colony  of  Kiao-Chun  and  of  its  hinterland,  the  province 
of  Shan-tung,  with  its  population  of  38, 000,000,  its  fine  coal 
and  iron  deposits  and  its  other  sources  of  wealth,  made  avail- 
able since  by  the  completed  railrpad.  Russia  on  her  part 
would  have  had  to  deal,  besides  the  opposition  to  her  policy 
in  Far  Asia  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  the  United  States  and 
Japan,  with  that  of  Germany  as  well,  which  would  have  ren- 
dered its  pursuance  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty.  This 
understanding  between  Russia  and  Germany  affected  Man- 
churia as  well.  Germany  gave  there  a  carte  blanche  to  Russia, 
19  289 


29o  GERMANY'S  SYMPATHETIC  SILENCE 

on  the  plea  that  German  political  or  commercial  interests  were 
in  no  wise  involved. 

The  key  to  this  pro-Russian  policy  in  Far  Asia,  however, 
is  found  not  only  in  the  facts  above  mentioned,  but  also,  and 
to  a  considerable  extent,  in  the  pleasant  personal  relations 
between  the  Kaiser  and  Nicholas  II.,  and,  furthermore,  in 
the  close  commercial  relations  obtaining  between  the  two 
countries,  for  Russia  has  been  one  of  Germany's  best  cus- 
tomers. Germany  had  the  largest  percentage  of  her  foreign 
trade,  amounting  to  a  matter  of  $200,000,000,,  exports  and 
imports  about  evenly  divided. 

These  are  the  main  tangible  interests  which  secured  for 
Russia  the  sympathies  of  official  Germany  in  her  struggle  with 
Japan.  There  were  a  few  others,  not  so  apparent,  but  just  as 
potent.  One  of  them  was  that  German  capitalists  owned 
large  blocks  of  Russian  securities,  amounting  altogether  to 
about  $500,000,000.  Depreciation  of  them  by  Russian  defeat 
would  be  inevitable;  indeed,  Japan's  naval  successes  imme- 
diately produced  this  effect.  Lastly,  the  ruling  classes,  from 
government  circles  downward,  with  a  fellow-feeling  for  Rus- 
sian autocratic  methods,  looked  upon  a  politically  strong 
Russia  as  strengthening  authority  in  Germany  herself,  thus 
serving  as  a  sort  of  barrier  against  the  growing  tide  of  socialism. 

All  of  which  is  tantamount  to  saying  that  the  Liberal 
circles  of  Germany  did  not  sympathize  with  Russia,  and 
looked  upon  the  contingency  of  Russian  victory  as  detri- 
mental to  all  they  themselves  aim  at.  It  is,  indeed,  easily 
susceptible  of  proof  that  Russia  and  the  close  affiliations  of  late 
years  sustained  with  her  were  held  by  all  the  liberal  minds  in 
Germany  as  strong  means  of  strengthening  that  unfortunate 
trend  toward  autocracy  and  the  ignoring  of  constitutional  and 
parliamentary  limits  placed  on  the  Kaiser  and  his  Cabinet  On 
the  other  hand,  Russia's  ultimate  defeat  would  make  in  favor 
of  a  revival  of  liberalism  in  the  Prussian  kingdom. 


291 

It  would  be  an  error,  though,  to  suppose,  that  Germany 
meant  to  interfere  or  intervene,  one  way  or  the  other,  in  the 
war  and  its  prospective  results.  She  did  not  consider  her 
interests  seriously  enough  involved  to  make  the  expenditure 
of  blood  and  treasure  advisable.  Personally,  William  II, 
would  regret  deeply  Russian  defeat.  As  regardvS  the  nation, 
the  outcome  of  the  war,  no  matter  which  side  might  win, 
would  leave  Germany's  position  in  China  and  throughout  Far 
Asia  much  the  same.  At  least  that  is  what  was  surmised. 
There  was  only  one  serious  factor  of  uncertainty  to  disturb 
the  calculations.  Its  name  is  the  United  States,  and  'ts  chief 
representative  the  Secretary  of  State,  Mr.  John  Hay.  "  What 
will  he  be  up  to  next?"  was  the  inquiry  on  many  lips.  Dark 
forebodings  were  in  the  minds  of  the  jingo  party.  Some  of 
their  organs,  such  as  the  Kreuz  Zeitung,  the  Colonial  Zeitung^ 
and  the  Deutsche  Zeitung  gave  vent  to  these  fears.  They  dis- 
cussed the  question  in  advance  to  foil  Mr.  Hay  and  Great 
Britain  if  Germany  should  be  asked  to  withdraw  from  Kiao- 
Chau  or  to  confine  her  efforts  within  the  narrow  limits  of  the 
colony  itself.  Some  hints  to  that  effect  appear  to  have  been 
dropped  in  the  correspondence  between  Baron  von  Sternberg, 
ambassador  in  Washington,  and  the  Foreign  Office  in  Berlin, 

To  show  the  importance  attached  by  the  German  govern- 
ment to  Kiao-Chua,  it  is  only  necessary  to  mention  a  few  facts. 
The  railroad  company  formed  to  construct  a  road  between 
Kiao-Chau  and  the  provincial  capital  of  Shan-tung,  Tsi-nan-fu, 
consisted  of  German  capitalists  backed  by  the  Deutsche  Bank 
in  Berlin,  with  capital  involved  of  $75,000,000,  and  400  miles 
of  road.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  war  one-half  of  the  road  had 
been  completed,  throwing  open  to  rail  communication  the  won-  - 
derfully  rich  mines  of  coal,  both  anthracite  and  bituminous, 
and  iron  located  midway.  The  remaining  half  was  to  be  fin- 
ished within  a  twelvemonth.  The  coal  obtained  was  of  excel- 
lent quality,  suitable  for  war  vessels  and  the  merchant  marine 


29 2  GERMANY'S  SYMPATHETIC  SILEXCE 

in  Chinese  waters.  Brought  to  the  pit  mouth  at  an  expense  to 
the  ton  of  less  than  $1.50,  and  delivered  in  Tsing-tau  (the 
most  important  city  within  the  Kiao-Chau  colony  proper)  by 
railway  at  $2.10,  it  was  sold  to  vessels  at  from  $5  to  $6.50. 
The  iron  ore  smelted  was  of  similarly  fine  quality,  and  used 
largely  for  building  purposes,  both  within  the  colony  and  in 
the  neighboring  cities  of  Shang-tung.  When  the  railroad 
shall  have  readied  Tsi-nan-fu,  the  availability  of  this  iron 
will  have  been  greatly  enlarged.  All  this  mining  region  had 
been  brought  under  the  control  of  German  capital,  something 
like  $10,000,000  having  been  invested,  with  $20,000,000  or 
$30, ooo, ooo  more  in  prospect.  But  this  is  only  part  of  the 
tangible  value  attaching  to  this  colony.  Germany  counted 
on  making  a  second  Hong-Kong,  not  out  of  the  harbor  of  Kiao- 
Chau,  but  out  of  Tsing-tau,  a  town  possessing  all  the  natural 
advantages  for  rapid  development  that  could  be  desired. 
Again,  with  Kiao-Chau  to  serve  as  a  base  and  lever,  very  much 
as  the  Philippines  serve  the  United  States  for  enlarging  her 
sphere  of  influence  in  Far  Asia,  all  that  Germany  asked  so 
far  as  concerned  Far  Asia,  was  to  be  let  alone. 

In  view  of  the  friendly  attitude  shown  by  Germany  to 
Russia  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Japan,  political 
circles  were  more  than  puzzled  by  the  persistent  flirtations 
going  on  between  Russia  on  the  one  side  and  France  and  Eng- 
land on  the  other.  Certainly,  a  drawing  together  of  France 
and  England  has  nothing  abnormal  in  it,  as  we  have  shown  in 
a  preceding  chapter.  Quite  otherwise  with  Russia. 

Germany's  foreign  policy  is  largely  built  up  on  the  belief 
that  a  lasting  peace  between  England  and  Russia  is  impossible ; 
or,  if  maintained,  can  only  be  maintained  at  the  expense  of 
one  or  the  other.  This  is  one  of  the  main  paragraphs  in  the 
creed  of  the  German  governing  circles.  Furthermore,  it  has 
always  been  held  that  England's  foreign  policy  is  made,  not 
by  her  sovereign,  but  by  her  leading  statesman  and  the  body 


GERMANY'S  SYMPATHETIC  SILENCE  293 

of  advisers  chosen  by  him  from  the  predominant  political 
party.  This  theory  held  good  throughout  the  sixty  years' 
reign  of  the  late  Queen  Victoria.  And  then,  in  the  year  1904, 
with  English  Parliamentary  government  apparently  in  its 
very  zenith,  it  seemed  as  if  "personal  government "-  —that  is, 
monarchic  government — were  once  more  to  prevail  in  Eng- 
land. King  Edward  VII.  appeared  to  be  demonstrating  this, 
and,  strange  to  say,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  great  body  of 
Englishmen  themselves.  At  least  he  was  credited,  both  ^by 
the  French  and  English  press,  with  bringing  about,  first,  closer 
and  distinctly  friendly  relations  with  France,  and  with  efforts 
to  effect  a  similar  reconciliation  with  Russia.  How  much— 
or,  rather,  how  little — of  this  is  true,  must  be  matter  of  con- 
jecture for  all  those  not  in  the  secret.  And  of  those  who  are 
really  in  the  secret,  not  one  so  far  has  spoken  out.  But  this 
much  appears  to  be  beyond  question,  that  attempts  were 
being  made  to  effect  a  sort  of  understanding  on  disputed  points 
between  England  and  Russia. 

As  to  the  reported  "growing  isolation  of  Germany" 
neither  the  Kaiser  nor  the  imperial  chancellor,  Count  von 
Billow,  lost  any  sleep  over  such  an  assumption.  Events  have 
shown  that  the  Triple  Alliance  was  stronger  than  it  ever  was. 
Again,  Spain  had  been  admitted  into  it,  or  virtually  so.  That 
point  was  settled  at  a  personal  interview  between  the  Kaiser, 
the  young  King  of  Spain,  and  his  leading  statesmen,  on  board 
the  Kaiser's  Hohenzollern,  within  a  Spanish  harbor.  Wil- 
liam II. 's  Mediterranean  trip  accomplished  this  much.  Then, 
as  to  Russia,  Germany  continued  to  believe  that  while  she 
might  be  willing  at  this  juncture  in  her  political  affairs  to 
listen  to  the  siren  voice  of  England,  inasmuch  as  to  do  so 
relieved  her  of  some  unquiet  moments,  she  would,  after  the 
war,  resume  her  well-tried  tactics  in  Asia,  tactics  always, 
directly  or  indirectly,  directed  against  England's  interests 
here. 


294  GERMANY'S  SYMPATHETIC' SILENCE 

But  at  the  moment  Germany  was  less  concerned  with  the 
war  in  Far  Asia  than  with  a  war  of  her  own,  small  though  it 
wras.  This  refers,  of  course,  to  the  rebellion  of  the  native 
tribes  in  German  Southwest  Africa,  the  backbone  of  the 
rising  being  that  of  the  Hereros.  It  was  the  first  colonial  war 
of  serious  dimensions  she  had  on  her  hands,  and  hence  the 
novelty  of  the  situation  and  inexperience  in  this  line  invested 
events  in  that  large  colony  with  something  of  the  same  interest 
which  the  rebellion  in  the  Philippines  excited  throughout  the 
United  States.  The  theatre  of  war  was  unfavorable  for  Ger- 
man troops  and  for  regular  warfare.  There  are  only  two 
small  railroads,  altogether  with  an  extent  of  a  few  hundred 
miles,  and  this  within  a  country  more  than  twice  as  large  as 
Germany,  with  immense  arid  steppes,  an  absence  of  navigable 
rivers,  a  sparse  population,  and  few  towns  or  other  places  of 
supply.  Besides  all  that,  the  home  government,  as  well  as 
the  army  authorities,  committed  the  blunder  of  undervaluing 
both  the  enemy  and  these  difficulties.  The  military  rein- 
forcements sent  out  to  conquer  or  destroy  the  rebellious 
natives,  instead  of  being  six  thousand,  as  had  been  advised 
by  the  governor  of  German  Southwest  Africa,  Colonel  Leut- 
wein,  were  only  one  thousand  strong,  and  additional  rein- 
forcements had  to  be  dispatched  later.  The  chief  belligerents 
there,  the  Hereros,  proved  to  be  men  of  much  more  mettle 
than  had  been  suspected  to  be  the  case.  Small  bodies  of 
troops  had  to  fight  them  under  the  most  unfavorable  condi- 
tions, and  the  Hereros  usually  stood  their  ground  well,  though 
the  fighting  on  their  part  was  almost  always  from  ambush. 
They  were  armed,  too,  with  weapons  of  the  latest  model,  sup- 
plied them  largely  by  British  dealers  across  the  border  of  Cape 
Colony.  In  this  way  the  losses  were  disproportionately  large, 
altogether  something  like  50  per  cent. 

This  particular  German  colony,  located  along  the  south- 
west coast  of  Africa,  and  extending  inland  several  hundreds 


GERMANY'S  SYMPATHETIC  SILENCE  295 

of  miles,  was  hitherto  looked  upon  as  the  most  promising  of 
all  by  colonial  enthusiasts.  In  fact,  hopes  had  been  built  for 
years  past  that  a  considerable  stream  of  German  emigration 
could  be  diverted  into  that  channel.  Those  hopes  must  prob- 
ably be  abandoned,  in  spite  of  the  favorable  climatic  condi- 
tions in  German  Southwest  Africa,  and  although  men  with 
small  capital,  from  $3,000  upward,  if  hardy  and  abstemious., 
have  a  good  chance  of  attaining  moderate  prosperity  in  that 
country  by  cattle-farming,  mining  and  cereal  culture. 

A  singular  fatality  seems  to  rest  on  German  colonial  enter- 
prises. With  the  sole  exception  of  Kiao-Chau,  if  one  can 
take  the  word  of  Eugene  Richter,  one  of  the  leading  Liberals, 
for  it,  they  are  not  "worth  a  straw."  Count  von  Bulow 
enjoyed  a  short-lived  triumph  when  he  had  purchased  from 
Spain  the  Carolines  and  the  Ladrones.  But  these  islands 
turned  out  as  worthless  as  the  rest,  and  German  capital  is 
wary  of  investing  in  colonies.  The  Reichstag  during  the 
session  of  1904  appropriated  another  50,000,000  marks  (about 
$12,500,000)  for  the  so-called  colonial  empire,  a  large  part  of 
this  sum  serving  to  make  up  the  annual  deficit.  But  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  it  went  for  the  further  development  of 
Kiao-Chau,  German  East  Africa  and  German  Southwest 
Africa.  In  both  the  latter  colonies  the  government  made  up 
its  mind  to  go  into  railroad-building  on  a  larger  scale,  hoping 
eventually  to  develop  resources.  The  patriotic  German, 
looking  at  the  map  and  seeing  there,  scattered  through  Africa, 
Australasia,  the  Pacific  and  China,  groups  of  islands  and  large 
tracts  on  the  mainland,  altogether  more  than  five  times  as 
large  as  the  home  country,  might  feel  his  heart  swell  with 
pride.  But  that  is  about  the  only  return  he  gets  for  his  money. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  Cameroons  and  Togo,  both  within  the 
tropical  belt  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  would  promise  rich 
returns  were  it  not  for  their  murderous  climate  and  the  diffi- 
culties of  obtaining  efficient  labor.  The  government  has  been 


296  GERMANY'S  SYMPATHETIC  SILENCE 

making  great  efforts  to  introduce  there  cotton  culture  on  a 
large  scale,  but,  with  prospects  favorable  in  every  other 
respect,  there  is  a  scarcity  of  diligent  human  labor. 

The  renewal  of  her  commercial  treaties  seemed  as  far  off 
as  ever.  Slight  advance  had  been  made  in  the  matter  of 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  the  United  States, 
Holland  and  Belgium,  Rumania  and  Switzerland,  Argentina 
and  Brazil.  True,  negotiations  with  Russia,  Austria-Hun- 
gary and  Italy  were  proceeding  at  a  fair  rate,  but  it  was 
impossible  to  make  any  definite  arrangements  with  them  in 
the  matter  of  a  commercial  understanding  before  the  other 
countries  mentioned  were  heard  from.  As  regards  the  United 
States,  even  the  Agrarians  had  become  aware  of  the  fact  that 
a  definite  understanding  must  be  had,  else  their  entire  export 
trade  would  be  imperiled.  ' 

In  addition  to  this  difficulty  there  was  the  concrete  one  of 
deficits  in  the  household  of  the  empire.  For  a  number  of 
years,  up  to  1902,  there  had  been  considerable  surplus;  but 
the  sources  of  revenue,  from  customs  duties,  etc.,  wrere  dimin- 
ishing, and  the  imperial  secretary  of  finances  officially  stated 
that  deficits  must  be  looked  for  until  1909.  He  estimated 
them  at  from  50,000,000  to  95,000,000  marks,  and  with  that 
he  also  figured  out  a  rise  of  expenditures  of  225,000,000  marks 
a  year  from  1,700,000,000  to  1,925,000,000  marks.  Army 
and  navy  are  responsible  for  the  bulk  of  this  rise  in  expendi- 
tures. 


A  NATIVE  KOREAN   OFFICIAL 
Min  Ang  Ho,  the  Postmaster-General  of  Korea,  was  educated  in  America. 


RUSSIAN  TROOPS  HURRYING  TO  THE  KOREAN  FRONTIER 

At  the  opening  of  the  war,  Russia  had  troops  concentrated  in  Manchuria  ready  to  take  up  the  march 
tor  Korea.    Our  artist  represents  them  as  marching  down  the  main  street  in  Port  Arthur,  for  the  front. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

The  United  States  and  the  Conflict 

Advantage  of  America's  Position — Secretary  Hay's  Stroke  of  Diplomacy — His  Let- 
ter to  Other  Powers — The  Proclamation  of  Neutrality — The  President's  Atti- 
tude Clearly  Shown — Commercial  Considerations — The  Interests  of  Americans 
Abroad. 

WHATEVER  might  be  felt  upon  the  broader  aspects 
of  the  quarrel,  it  was  generally  agreed  that  the 
Japanese,  with  all  their  evident  determination  to 
fight  and  notwithstanding  their  great  aggressiveness,  had  so 
conducted  the  negotiations  with  Russia  as  to  present  their 
national  cause  in  a  favorable  light  before  the  world.  Justly 
regarding  the  integrity  of  Korea  as  essential  to  their  own 
security,  they  could  not — so  their  official  statement  ran — exact 
from  Russia  a  pledge  to  respect  it.  Equally  concerned  in  the 
independence  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  they  could  obtain  from 
Russia  no  agreement  and  no  explanation  of  her  continued 
aggression  and  her  continued  military  activity  in  Chinese 
territory.  Recognizing  that  Russia's  studious  delay  was  only 
a  cover  for  a  determined  advance  that  was  directed  against  the 
essential  interests  of  Japan,  they  broke  off  the  fruitless  pre- 
tense of  negotiation  and  resorted  to  the  arbitrament  of  arms. 
The  strength  of  this  statement  of  the  Japanese  position 
was  such  that  the  world  knew  it  to  be  essentially  true.  Rus- 
sia's silent,  sullen  advance  across  Asia,  her  policy  of  acquiring 
and  holding  was  no  new  demonstration;  and  while  it  fell  to 
Japan  to  oppose  it  forcibly,  for  her  own  self-preservation,  other 
Powers  had  already  made  the  same  protest  against  the  Rus- 
sian aggression  in  Manhcuria  and  her  contemptuous  disregard 
of  treaty  engagements.  Thus,  while  Japan  at  that  juncture 

297 


298  THE  UNITED  STATES  AXD  THE  CONFLICT 

was  without  military  allies,  her  diplomatic  alliances  were  oi 
the  strongest.  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  at  least, 
were  disposed  to  insist  upon  the  respect  for  the  integrity  oj 
the  Chinese  Empire,  for  which  Japan  professed  to  be  fighting, 
and  such  insistence  bade  fair  to  prove  an  influential  factor  in 
the  war. 

America,  indeed,  had  a  peculiar  sentimental  interest  in 
the  impending  war.  Japan,  one  of  the  principals,  she,  througi 
Commodore  Perry,  introduced  to  the  Western  world,  and  it 
was  another  of  her  naval  officers,  Commodore  R.  W.  Shufeldt, 
who  opened  to  the  Caucasians  Korea,  the  battlefield.  Russia, 
the  other  principal,  was  our  "traditional  friend,"  because  oi 
her  offer  of  good  offices  in  the  War  of  1812  and  her  refusal  tc 
join  France  and  England  in  the  plan  to  intervene  in  our  Civil 
War. 

Of  material  interest  in  the  outcome,  we  had  none  that 
was  then  apparent,  save  in  the  attitude  of  Russia,  if  she  should 
be  victor,  toward  China,  with  which,  as  sovereign  power,  we 
had  just  concluded  a  treaty  opening  Manchurian  ports  to  our 
trade.  Russia,  master  of  Korea,  would  hardly  acknowledge 
rights  there  granted  by  China,  nor  was  there  anything  in  hei 
history  to  warrant  belief  that  she  would  then  make  with  us 
such  treaties  as  to  give  our  trade  entrance  to  Korea. 

In  this  aspect,  Russia  threatened  to  undo  much  of  the 
work  which  we  had  done  for  commerce  in  the  Far  East.  Otu 
stand  for  the  open  door  in  China  after  the  Boxer  uprising  was 
no  departure.  It  was  merely  carrying  on  the  policy  put  intc 
effect  by  Commodore  Perry  in  Japan  forty-seven  years  before 
and  by  Commodore  Shufeldt  in  Korea  twenty-two  years  ago 
In  all  of  these  cases  the  United  States  acted  as  pioneer 'foi 
the  Western  nations.  The  eclat  of  Perry's  intrusion  upon 
Japan  and  the  recency  of  our  last  negotiations  with  China 
kept  these  achievements  fresh  in  the  public  mind,  but  the  suc- 
cess of  Shufeldt  in  bringing  the  Hermit  Kingdom  into  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT  299 

family  of  nations  under  the  auspices  of  the  young  republic  ol 
the  West  was  no  less  noteworthy,  and  it  is  worth  recalling 
that  the  integrity  of  Korea  was  in  the  balance,  whatever  the 
result  of  the  struggle  on  her  soil. 

In  strict  accord,  therefore,  with  American  tradition, 
President  Roosevelt,  upon  the  first  outbreak  of  hostilities, 
proclaimed  the  neutrality  of  the  United  States.  On  February 
nth  the  following  document  was  published  from  the  White 
House : 

By  the  President  of  the  United  States  of  America, 

A    PROCLAMATION 

WHEREAS,  A  state  of  war  unhappily  exists  between  Japan 
on  the  one  side  and  Russia  on  the  other  side ;  and, 

WHEREAS,  The  United  States  are  on  terms  of  friendship 
and  amity  with  both  the  contending  Powers  and  with  the  per- 
sons inhabiting  their  several  dominions;  and, 

WHEREAS,  There  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  resid- 
ing within  the  territories  or  dominions  of  each  of  the  said 
belligerents,  and  carrying  on  commerce,  trade  or  other  business 
or  pursuits  therein,  protected  by  the  faith  of  treaties;  and, 

WHEREAS,  There  are  subjects  of  each  of  the  said  belliger- 
ents residing  within  the  territory  or  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
States,  and  carrying  on  commerce,  trade  or  other  business  or 
pursuits  therein;  and, 

WHEREAS,  The  laws  of  the  United  States,  without  inter- 
fering with  the  free  expression  of  opinion  and  sympathy,  or 
with  the  open  manufacture  or  sale  of  arms  or  munitions  of 
war,  nevertheless  impose  upon  all  persons  who  may  be  within 
their  territory  and  jurisdiction  the  duty  of  an  impartial  neutral- 
ity during  the  existence  of  the  contest;  and, 

WHEREAS,  It  is  the  duty  of  a  neutral  government  not  to 
permit  or  suffer  the  making  of  its  waters  subservient  to  the 
purposes  of  war: 


5oo  THE  U XI TED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT 

Now,  therefore,  I,  Theodore  Roosevelt,  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  in  order  to  preserve  the  neutrality 
of  the  United  States  and  of  their  citizens,  and  of  persons 
within  their  territory  and  jurisdiction,  and  to  enforce  their 
laws,  and  in  order  that  all  persons,  being  warned  of  the  general 
tenor  of  the  laws  and  treaties  of  the  United  States  in  this 
behalf,  and  of  the  law  of  nations,  may  thus  be  prevented  from 
an  unintentional  violation  of  the  same,  do  hereby  declare  and 
proclaim  that  by  the  Act  passed  on  the  2oth  day  of  April, 
A.  D.  1818,  commonly  known  as  the  "Neutrality  Law,"  the 
following  acts  are  forbidden  to  be  done,  under  severe  penal- 
ties, within  the  territory  and  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States, 
to  wit: 

First.  Accepting  and  exercising  a  commission  to  serve 
either  of  the  said  belligerents  by  land  or  by  sea  against  the 
other  belligerent. 

Second.  Enlisting  or  entering  into  the  service  of  either 
of  the  said  belligerents  as  a  soldier,  or  as  a  marine  or  seaman 
on  board  of  any  vessel  of  war,  letter  of  marque  or  privateer. 

Third.  Hiring  or  retaining  another  person  to  enlist  or 
enter  himself  in  the  service  of  either  of  the  said  belligerents  as 
a  soldier,  or  as  a  marine,  or  seaman  on  board  of  any  vessel  of 
war,  letter  of  marque  or  privateer. 

Fourth.  Hiring  another  person  to  go  beyond  the  limits 
or  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  with  intent  to  be  enlisted 
as  aforesaid. 

Fifth.  Hiring  another  person  to  go  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  United  States  with  intent  to  be  entered  into  service  as 
aforesaid. 

Sixth.  Retaining  another  person  to  go  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  United  States  with  intent  to  be  enlisted  as  aforesaid. 

Seventh.  Retaining  another  person  to  go  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  United  States  to  be  entered  into  service  as  afore- 
said. (But  the  said  Act  is  not  to  be  construed  to  extend  to  a 


THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT  301 

citizen  of  either  belligerent  who,  being  transiently  within  the 
United  States,  shall,  on  board  of  any  vessel  of  war;  which,  at 
the  time  of  its  arrival  within  the  United  States,  was  fitted  and 
equipped  as  such  vessel  of  war,  enlist  or  enter  himself,  or  hire 
or  retain  another  subject  or  citizen  of  the  same  belligerent) 
who  is  transiently  within  the  United  States,  to  enlist  or  enter 
himself  to  serve  such  belligerent  on  board  such  vessel  of  war, 
if  the  United  States  shall  then  be  at  peace  with  such  belligerent. 

Eighth.  Fitting  out  and  arming,  or  attempting  to  fit  out 
and  arm,  or  procuring  to  be  fitted  out  and  armed,  or  know- 
ingly being  concerned  in  the  furnishing,  fitting  out  or  arming 
of  any  ship  or  vessel  with  intent  that  such  ship  or  vessel  shall 
be  employed  in  the  service  of  either  of  the  belligerents. 

Ninth.  Issuing  or  delivering  a  commission  within  the 
territory  or  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  for  any  ship  or 
vessel  to  the  intent  that  she  may  be  employed  as  aforesaid. 

Tenth.  Increasing  or  augmenting,  or  procuring  to  be 
increased  or  augmented,  or  knowingly  being  concerned  in 
increasing  or  augmenting,  the  force  of  any  ship  of  war,  cruiser 
or  other  armed  vessel,  which  at  the  time  of  her  arrival  within 
the  United  States  was  a  ship  of  war,  cruiser  or  armed  vessel 
in  the  service  of  either  of  the  said  belligerents,  or  belonging  to 
the  subjects  of  either,  by  adding  to  the  number  of  guns  of 
such  vessels,  or  by  changing  those  on  board  of  her  for  guns  of 
a  larger  calibre,  or  by  the  addition  thereto  of  any  equipment 
solely  applicable  to  war. 

Eleventh.  Beginning  or  setting  on  foot  or  providing  or 
preparing  the  means  for  any  military  expedition  or  enterprise 
to  be  carried  on  from  the  territory  or  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States  against  the  territory  or  dominions  of  either  of 
the  said  belligerents. 

And  I  do  hereby  further  declare  and  proclaim  that  any 
frequenting  and  use  of  the  waters  within  the  territorial  juris- 
diction of  the  United  States  by  the  armed  vessels  of  either 


302  THE  UNITED  STATES  AXD  THE  CONFLICT 

belligerent,  whether  public  ships  or  privateers,  for  the  purpose 
of  preparing  for  hostile  operations,  or  as  posts  of  observation 
upon  the  ships  cf  war,  or  privateers,  or  merchant  vessels  of 
the  other  belligerent  lying  within  or  being  about  to  enter  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  must  be  regarded  as 
unfriendly  and  offensive,  and  in  violation  of  that  neutrality 
which  is  the  determination  of  this  government  to  observe. 

And  to  the  end  that  the  hazard  and  inconvenience  of 
such  apprehended  practices  may  be  avoided,  I  further  pro- 
claim and  declare  that  from  and  after  the  i5th  day  of  Feb- 
ruary, instant,  and  during  the  continuance  of  the  present 
hostilities  between  Japan  and  Russia,  no  ship  of  war  or 
privateer  of  either  belligerent  shall  be  permitted  to  make  use 
of  any  port,  harbor,  roadstead,  or  waters  subject  to  the  juris- 
diction of  the  United  States  from  which  a  vessel  of  the  other 
belligerent  (whether  the  same  shall  be  a  ship  of  war,  a  priva- 
teer or  a  merchant  ship)  shall  have  previously  departed  until 
after  the  expiration  of  at  least  twenty-four  hours  from  the 
departure  of  such  last  mentioned  vessel  beyond  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  United  States. 

If  any  ship  of  war  or  privateer  of  either  belligerent  shall, 
after  the  time  this  notification  takes  effect,  enter  any  port, 
harbor,  roadstead  or  waters  of  the  United  States,  such  vessel 
shall  be  required  to  depart  and  put  to  sea  within  twenty -four 
hours  after  her  entrance  into  such  port,  harbor,  roadstead  or 
waters,  except  in  case  of  stress  of  weather  or  of  her  requiring 
provisions  or  things  necessary  for  the  subsistence  of  her  crew, 
or  for  repairs,  in  either  of  which  cases  the  authorities  of  the  port 
or  of  the  nearest  port  (as  the  case  may  be)  shall  require  her 
to  put  to  sea  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  expiration  of  such 
period  of  twenty-four  hours,  without  permitting  her  to  take  in 
supplies  beyond  what  may  be  necessary  for  her  immediate  use ; 
and  no  such  vessel  which  may  bave  been  permitted  to  remain 
within  the  waters  of  the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of 


THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT  303 

repair  shall  continue  in  such  port,  harbor,  roadstead  or  waters 
for  a  longer  period  than  twenty-four  hours  after  her  necessary 
repairs  shall  have  been  completed,  unless  within  such  twenty- 
four  hours  a  vessel,  whether  ship  of  war,  privateer  or  merchant 
ship  of  the  other  belligerent,  shall  have  departed  therefrom,  in 
which  case  the  time  limit  for  the  departure  of  such  ship  of 
war,  or  privateer  shall  be  extended  so  far  as  may  be  necessary 
to  secure  an  interval  of  not  less  than  twenty-four  hours  be- 
tween such  departure  and  that  of  any  ship  of  war,  privateer 
or  merchant  ship  of  the  other  belligerent  which  may  have  pre- 
viously quit  the  same  port,  harbor,  roadstead  or  waters : 

No  ship  of  war  or  privateer  of  either  belligerent  shall  be 
detained  in  any  port,  harbor,  roadstead  or  waters  of  the 
United  States  more  than  twenty-four  hours  by  reason  of  the 
successive  departures  from  such  port,  harbor,  roadstead  or 
waters  of  more  than  one  vessel  of  the  other  belligerent.  But 
if  there  be  several  vessels  of  each  or  either  of  the  two  belliger- 
ents in  the  same  port,  harbor,  roadstead  or  waters,  the  order  of 
their  departure  therefrom  shall  be  so  arranged  as  to  afford  the 
opportunity  of  leaving  alternately  to  the  vessels  of  the  respec- 
tive belligerents,  and  to  cause  the  least  detention  consistent 
with  the  objects  of  this  proclamation. 

No  ship  of  war  or  privateer  of  either  belligerent  shall  be 
permitted,  while  in  any  port,  harbor,  roadstead  or  waters  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  to  take  in  any  supplies 
except  provisions  and  such  other  things  as  may  be  requisite  for 
the  sustenance  of  her  crew,  and  except  so  much'coal  only  as 
may  be  sufficient  to  carry  such  vessel,  if  without  any  sail 
power,  to  the  nearest  port  of  her  own  country;  or  in  case  the 
vessel  is  rigged  to  go  under  sail,  and  may  also  be  propelled  by 
steam  power,  then  with  half  the  quantity  of  coal  which  she 
would  be  entitled  to  receive,  if  dependent  upon  steam  alone, 
and  no  coal  shall  be  again  supplied  to  any  such  ship  of  war  of 
privateer  or  in  any  other  port,  harbor,  roadstead  or  waters  of 


THE  UXITED  STATES  AXD  THE  CONFLICT 

the  United  States,  without  special  permission,  until  after  the 
expiration  of  three  months  from  the  time  when  such  coal  may 
have  been  last  supplied  to  her  within  the  waters  of  the  United 
States,  unless  such  ship  of  war  or  privateer  shall,  since  last 
thus  supplied,  have  entered  a  port  of  the  government  to  which 
she  belongs. 

And  I  further  declare  and  proclaim  that  by  the  first  article 
of  the  convention  as  to  the  rights  of  the  neutrals  at  sea,  which 
was  concluded  between  the  United  States  of  America  and  his 
Majesty,  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  on  the  226.  day  of 
July,  A.  D.  1854,  the  following  principles  were  recognized  as 
permanent,  to  wit: 

First.  That  free  ships  make  free  goods — that  is  to  say, 
that  the  effects  or  goods  belonging  to  subjects  or  citizens  be- 
longing to  a  Power  or  State  at  war  are  free  from  capture  and 
confiscation  when  found  on  board  of  neutral  vessels,  with  the 
exception  of  articles  of  contraband  of  war. 

Second.  That  the  property  of  neutrals  on  board  an 
enemy's  vessel  is  not  subject  to  confiscation,  unless  the  same 
be  contraband  of  war. 

And  I  do  further  declare  and  proclaim  that  the  statutes  of 
the  United  States  and  the  law  of  nations  alike  require  that  no 
person  within  the  territory  and  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
States  shall  take  part,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  the  said  wrar, 
but  shall  remain  at  peace  with  each  of  the  said  belligerents, 
and  shall  maintain  a  strict  and  impartial  neutrality,  and  that 
whatever  privileges  shall  be  accorded  to  one  belligerent  within 
the  ports  of  the  United  States  shall  be,  in  like  manner,  ac- 
corded to  the  other. 

And  I  do  hereby  enjoin  all  the  good  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  and  all  persons  residing  or  being  within  the  territory  or 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  to  observe  the  laws  thereof, 
and  to  commit  no  act  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  the  said 
statutes,  or  in  violation  of  the  law  of  nations  in  that  behalf. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT  305 

And  I  do  hereby  warn  all  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
and  all  persons  residing  or  being  within  their  territory  or  juris- 
diction, that,  while  the  free  and  full  expression  of  sympathies 
in  public  and  private  is  not  restricted  by  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  military  forces  in  aid  of  either  belligerent  cannot  law- 
fully be  originated  or  organized  within  their  jurisdiction ;  and 
that  while  all  persons  may  lawfully  and  without  restriction  by 
reason  of  the  aforesaid  state  of  war  manufacture  and  sell 
within  the  United  States  arms  and  munitions  of  war  and  othei 
articles  ordinarily  known  as  "contraband  of  war,"  yet  the} 
cannot  carry  such  articles  upon  the  high  seas  for  the  use  01 
service  of  either  belligerent,  nor  can  they  transport  soldien 
and  officers  of  either,  or  attempt  to  break  any  blockade  whicl 
may  be  lawfully  established  and  maintained  during  the  wa  • 
without  incurring  the  risk  of  hostile  capture  and  the  penalti'  > 
denounced  by  the  law  of  nations  in  that  behalf. 

And  I  do  hereby  give  notice  that  all  citizens  of  the  United 
States  and  others  who  may  claim  the  protection  of  this  gov- 
ernment who  may  misconduct  themselves  in  the  premises  will 
do  so  at  their  peril,  and  that  they  can  in  no  wise  obtain  any 
protection  from  the  government  of  the  United  States  against 
the  consequences  of  their  misconduct. 

In  witness  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and 
caused  the  seal  of  the  United  States  to  be  affixed. 

Done  at  the  city  of  Washington  this  nth  day  of  Febru- 
ary in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
four  and  of  the  independence  of  the  United  States  the  one 
hundred  and  twenty-eighth. 

THEODORE  ROOSEVELT. 

By  the  President: 

JOHN  HAY,  Secretary  of  State. 

On  February  loth,  a  few  days  previous  to  the  President's 
proclamation,  Secretary  Hay  had  addressed  a  note  to  Great 
Britain,  France,  Germany,  Austria  and  Italy,  to  ascertain  if 


3o6  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT 

they  were  willing  to  join  in  a  note  to  Russia  and  Japan  that 
during  hostilities  and  thereafter  the  neutrality  and  integrity 
of  China  must  be  recognized.  Relative  to  the  question  of 
restricting  warlike  action  to  the  narrowest  limits,  the  proposi- 
tion took  the  form  of  a  note  to  Russia  and  one  to  Japan 
suggesting  some  such  limitation;  in  addition,  the  neutral 
Powers  were  called  on  by  the  United  States  to  address  them- 
selves in  the  same  fashion  to  Russia  and  Japan.  The  proposi- 
tion of  the  United  States  contemplated  a  restriction  of 
hostilities  and  the  consequent  hardships  of  war  to  the  smallest 
possible  area. 

The  text  of  Mr.  Hay's  note  is  given  in  full  as  follows: 
"  You  will  express  to  the  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  the 
earnest  desire  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States  that  in 
the  course  of  the  military  operations  which  have  begun  between 
Russia  and  Japan,  the  neutrality  of  China,  and  in  all  practical 
ways  her  administrative  entity  shall  be  respected  by  both 
parties,  and  that  the  area  of  hostilities  shall  be  localized  and 
limited  as  much  as  possible,  so  that  undue  excitement  and 
disturbance  of  the  Chinese  people  may  be  prevented  and  the 
least  possible  loss  to  the  commerce  and  peaceful  intercourse  of 
the  world  may  be  occasioned. 

"JOHN  HAY." 

At  the  same  time  this  government  informed  all  the  powers 
signatory  of  the  protocol  at  Pekin  of  its  action,  and  requested 
similar  action  on  their  part.  Almost  immediately,  responses 
were  received  from  several  of  the  leading  powers,  practically  all 
endorsing  the  spirit  in  which  the  proposition  was  made.  Great 
Britain  signified  her  hearty  approval  of  the  idea,  along  broad 
lines,  with  reservations  which  would  not  prevent  her  intended 
military  expedition  into  Tibet  under  Colonel  Youiighusband, 
Austria-Hungary  expressed  assent,  Germany,  having  encour- 
aged Mr.  Hay  to  make  the  proposal,  accepted  it,  and  France, 
after  some  admirable  diplomatic  effort  by  General  Porter, 


THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT  307 

United  States  Ambassador  at  Paris,  announced  her  agree- 
ment. Of  the  combatants,  Japan  informed  the  State  Depart- 
ment at  Washington  that  she  would  accede,  provided  Russia 
did  so,  making  her  reply  on  February  i3th,  in  the  following 
words : 

"  The  Imperial  Government  sharing  with  the  Government 
of  the  United  States  in  the  fullest  measure  the  desire,  to  avoid 
as  far  as  possible,  any  disturbance  of  the  ordinary  condition  of 
affairs  now  prevailing  in  China,  are  prepared  to  respect  the 
neutrality  and  administrative  entity  of  China  outside  the  re- 
gion occupied  by  Russia,  as  long  as  Russia,  making  a  similar 
engagement,  fulfills  in  good  faith  the  terms  and  conditions  of 
such  engagements." 

And  Russia,  on  the  nineteenth  of  that  month,  engaged 
herself,  with  reasonable  restrictions,  by  saying: 

"The  Imperial  Government  shares  completely  the  desire 
to  insure  tranquillity  of  China ;  is  ready  to  adhere  to  an  under- 
standing with  other  powers  for  the  purpose  of  safeguarding 
the  neutrality  of  that  empire  on  the  following  conditions : 

"  Firstly,  China  must  herself  strictly  observe  all  the  clauses 
of  neutrality. 

"The  Japanese  Government  must  loyally  observe  the 
engagements  entered  into  with  the  powers,  as  well  as  the  prin- 
ciples generally  recognized  by  the  law  of  nations. 

"  Thirdly,  that  it  is  well  understood  that  neutralization  in 
no  case  can  be  extended  to  Manchuria,  the  territory  of  which, 
by  the  force  of  events,  will  serve  as  the  field  of  military  opera- 
tions." 

On  the  same  day  the  governments  of  Russia,  Japan,  and 
China  were  notified  that  the  answers  were  "viewed  as  respon- 
sive to  the  proposal  made  by  the  United  States  as  well  as  by 
the  other  powers,"  and  that  the  other  governments  would  be 
so  informed,  their  adherence  to  the  principles  having  been  duly 
notified  to  the  government  of  the  United  States.  This  action 


3o8  THE  UXITED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT 

gave  China  assurances  of  our  continued  friendly  interest  and 
our  moral  support  in  her  effort  to  maintain  her  neutrality  and 
peaceful  conditions  in  her  dominions,  the  government  at 
Peking  having  previously  announced  that  the  neutrality  of 
China  would  be  preserved  so  far  as  lay  in  her  power ;  and  with 
the  exception  of  her  provinces  which  wrould  be  of  necessity, 
the  scene  of  conflict. 

Not  only  by  the  issue  of  this  note,  but  also  by  the  fact  that 
it  met  with  general  acceptance  among  the  powers  interested  in 
the  fate  of  China,  American  diplomacy  received  an  enormous 
addition  of  prestige.  Indeed,  from  her  position,  the  United 
States  was  the  only  country  able  to  take  the  lead  at  this  crisis 
of  political  affairs.  By  her  sincere  treatment  of  China  after 
the  Boxer  tiprising,  which  has  been  noted  elsewhere,  she  had 
won  the  respect  and  faith  of  the  diplomatic  world;  and, 
though,  in  contrast  with  the  methods  of  the  older  powers,  her 
negotiations  were  direct  and  often  brusque,  they  carried  a 
wealth  of  meaning  which  seldom  failed  of  its  purpose. 

As  is  always  the  case  in  war-time,  American  commerce 
suffered  from  a  disturbance  of  peace.  It  was  estimated  that 
the  first  three  months  of  the  war  caused  a  loss  of  nearly 
$20,000,000  to  shippers  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
alone.  Owing  also  to  the  uncertainty  prevalent  as  to  what 
articles  would  be  considered  by  the  belligerents  contraband  of 
war,  trade  to  the  Far  East  was  generally  held  in  suspense, 
although  both  Russian  and  Japanese  agents  were  on  the  North 
American  continent  to  place  large  orders  for  foodstuffs  and 
supplies. 

The  value  of  the  commerce  of  the  countries  fronting 
upon  the  scene  of  hostilities  in  the  Orient  aggregates  about 
$600,000,000  annually,  of  which  the  United  States  enjoys  fully 
$100,000,000.  While  the  prospect  of  war  resulted  in  the  plac- 
ing in  this  country  of  orders  from  Japan  for  flour  and  from 
Pussia  for  treats,  the  general  trend  of  exportation  to  the  four 


THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT          309 

countries  locally  affected  by  the  fighting — Russia,  Japan, 
Korea  and  China — was  downward  during  the  period  devoted 
to  preparations  for  hostilities.  To  Japan  the  exports  from  the 
United  States  during  December,  1903,  were  $2,263,245  in 
value,  against  $2,811,589  in  December  of  the  preceding  year, 
and  for  the  entire  calendar  year  1903  were  about  $1,000,000 
less  than  the  preceding  year.  To  Asiatic  Russia  the  exports 
from  the  United  States  were  $716,274  in  1903,  against  $898,711 
in  1902  and  $1,013,320  in  1901.  To  China  our  exports  dur- 
ing 1903  were  materially  below  those  of  the  preceding  year, 
being  for  the  month  of  December  $841,373  against  $1,857,733 
in  December,  1902,  and  for  the  entire  year  $14,970,138,  against 
$22,698,282  in  1902.  This  reduction  occurs  chiefly  in  cotton 
cloths,  of  which  our  total  exportation  to  China  in  December, 
1903,  was  only  3,665,364  yards,  against  20,582,554  yards  in 
December  of  the  preceding  year,  the  value  being  $230,546 
in  December,  1903,  against  $1,074,463  in  December,  1902. 
For  the  entire  year  the  value  of  the  cotton  cloth  exported  from 
the  United  States  to  China  was  $8,801,964,  against  $16,048,455 
in  the  calendar  year  1902.  This  reduction  in  exports  to  China 
is  not  peculiar  to  the  United  States,  as  the  official  reports  of 
the  Chinese  government  show  a  general  reduction  of  its  im- 
ports during  1903,  up  to  the  latest  period  covered  by  the 
reports. 

To  Russian  China  United  States  exports  show  an  increase, 
being  in  1893,  $846,310,  against  $421,163  in  1902.  To  Korea 
the  exports  of  the  year  also  show  a  slight  increase,  being 
valued  at  $370,566  in  1903,  against  $257,130  in  1902.  To 
Hong  Kong,  which  is  sufficiently  far  removed  from  the  scene 
of  hostilities  to  be  less  affected,  apparently,  by  such  conditions, 
the  exports  from  the  United  States  show  an  increase,  being  in 
December,  1903,  $1,705,436,  against  $1,417,736  in  December 
of  the  preceding  year,  and  for  the  entire  year  $9,792,193, 
against  $8,751,779  in  1902. 


310  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT 

As  to  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Manchuria,  it 
is  not  separately  shown  in  the  general  statements  of  the  com- 
merce with  China.  The  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor, 
through  its  Bureau  of  Statistics,  however,  compiled  some 
figures  which  show  that  the  imports  of  New-Chwang,  the 
principal  port  through  which  Manchurian  commerce  passed, 
amounted  in  1902  to  about  18,000,000  haikwan  taels,  against 
17,000,000  in  1901  and  8,000,000  in  1900.  The  value  of  the 
haikwan  tael  in  1902  was  63  cents,  so  that  the  value  of  the 
imports  of  Manchuria,  stated  in  dollars,  would  be,  in  1902, 
about  $11,000,000. 

The  table  which  follows  shows  the  total  value  of  foreign 
merchandise  of  all  kinds  imported  into  New-Chwang  in  each 
year  from  1896  to  1902: 

Foreign  goods 
From  foreign  from  native 

countries.  ports. 

Year.  *Haikwan  taels.          *Haikwan  taels. 

1896  1,886,485  6,271,166 

1897  1,641,415  7,417,236 

1898  1,453,318  9,174,245 

1899  5,279,185  16,566,413 

1900  2,682,420  5,488,632 

1901  4,293,737  12,854,552 

I9°2  5.346,306  12,969,264 

fThe  table  which  follows  shows  the  value  of  imports  into 
Japan  during  each  year  from  1881  to  1903,  and  the  percentage 
•supplied  by  the  United  States  and  the  United  Kingdom.  It 
will  be  noted  that  in  the  twenty-two  years  covered  by  these 
figures  the  volume  of  Japanese  imports  has  been  multiplied  by 
ten,  and  that  the  total  value  has  shown  a  tendency  to  double 
about  every  seven  years. 

*  Average  value  of  haikawn  tael  reported  by  Chinese  government, 
1896,  81  cents;  1898,  70  cents;  1901,  72  cents;  1903,  63  cents. 
fCompiled  from  official  reports  of  the  Japanese  government. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  THE  CONFLICT          311 

From  From 
United  States.      United  Kingdom 

Calendar  Year.  Total  Yen.  Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

1881  ................  31,128,125        5.72  52.57 

1882  ................  29,441,453  10.55  47-40 

1883  ................  28,431,939  ii.  21  44.83 

1884  ................  29,626,781  8.40  43-°7 

1885  ................  29,356,967  9.37  42.43 

1886  ................  32,168,432  10.44  39-49 

1887  ................  44,304,251  7.47  42.82 

1888  ................  65,455,234  8.36  43-81 

1889  ................  63,995,009  9.65  40.73 

1890  ................  80,554,874  8.56  33.04 

1891  ................  61,969,183  11.04  32.27 

1892  ................  70,076,410  8.54  29.67 

1893  ................  87,597,095  6.95  31.88 

1894  ................  116,284,050  9.44  36.29 

1895  ................  127,260,844  7.29  35.49 

1896  ................  169,882,595  9.64  34-88 

1897  ................  218,440,623  12.38  29.94 

1898  ...............  .  274,599,260  I4-57  22.84 

1899  ................  219,228,647  17.43  20.45 

190°  ................  286,170,933  21.96  2503 

1901  ................  255,816,644  17.5  19.8 

1902  ................  271,731,258  17.9  18.5 

................  311,000,000  14.2  15  6 


*Actual  figures  for  eleven  months  and  estimate  for  December  . 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

Japan's  Army  and  Navy 

The  Japanese   as   Soldiers — Their   Military  Instinct — The    Infantry — The   Monarch's 
Service — The  Fine  Navy — Its  Discipline — The  Various  Classes  of  War  Vessels. 

WHILE  Russia's  vast  army  and  navy  were  distributed 
at  points  thousands  of  miles  from  the  scene  of  strug- 
gle, it  was  the  peculiar  advantage  of  Japan  that  her 
men  and  ships  were  concentrated  within  easy  striking  distance 
of  the  Russian  bases  of  supplies.   Before  the  Czar  could  pour  his 
enormous  army  into  Manchuria  or  bring  his  various  squadrons 
into  conjunction  near  the  Korean  peninsula,  the  Mikado  deter- 
mined to  strike  with  the  full  force  of  his  armament. 

Although  there  was  a  startling  disparity  on  paper  between 
the  Japanese  and  Russian  forces,  in  favor  of  the  latter,  the 
actual  troops  and  vessels  available  were  somewhat  balanced 
toward  the  side  of  the  smaller  power.  Her  field  forces  were 
estimated  as  follows : 

Infantry 147,160 

Cavalry 9,700 

Artillery 24,130 

Engineers 7,840 

Transport  Corps .    .      7,960 

Reserves 76,478 


Total 273,268 

Practically,  all  of  these  men  were  to  be  counted  on.  She 
possessed  the  great  advantage  of  having  all  of  her  naval  and 
land  forces  within  easy  striking  distance  of  Korea  and  the  coast 
of  Manchuria,  with  sources  of  supplies,  arsenals  and  repair 


DEATH  IN  THE   BARBED  WIRE 

The  barbed  wire  entanglements  set  by  the  Russians  in  front  of  their  forts  surrounding 
Port  Arthur  was  an  expedient  new  to  warfare.  They  proved  {rightfully  effective.  The 
Japanese  attempted  to  charge  through  these  death-traps  by  thousands,  and  when 
*iev  were  hopelessly  entangled  the  Russians  cut  them  to  shreds  with  volleys  of  shrapnel. 


JAPAN'S  ARMY  AND  NAVY  313 

docks  immediately  at  hand.  She  could  act  with  both  navy 
and  army  in  the  very  shortest  ord^r,  and  how  well  she  could 
make  use  of  natural  opportunity  the  war  with  China  thoroughly 
demonstrated. 

The  Japanese  army  had  a  total  strength  of  500,000  trained 
men,  of  whom  273,000  men  with  798  guns  formed  the  field 
army,  organized  in  thirteen  divisions.  It  was  recruited  by  com- 
pulsory service.  Its  great  weakness  lay  in  the  paucity  of  its 
cavalry,  which  numbered  seventeen  regiments  and  10.000 
men  ;  but  this  weakness  was  compensated  to  some  extent  by 
the  extraordinary  marching-  power  and  mobility  of  the  infantry. 

The  Japanese  soldier,  moreover,  is  a  perfectly  working 
factor  of  the  great  machine-like  army  in  whose  pride  he  is  a 
unit.  Cleanly,  neat,  intelligent,  scrupulously  obedient  to 
orders,  full  of  a  brave  patriotism,  he  makes  a  most  dependable 
man  of  the  ranks.  Not  content  to  follow  the  letter  of  the  law, 
he  is  interested  also  in  the  spirit,  while  his  excellent  eye  for 
the  details  leaves  no  loose  screws  to  cause  disaster  when  the 
real  test  comes.  The  Mikado's  army  had  been  kept  abreast 
of  the  latest  improvements,  both  in  arms  and  equipment. 

It  was  a  long  step  from  an  hereditary  class  of  gentlemen 
fighters  to  a  modern  army  organization,  but  when,  in  1868,  the 
Flowery  Kingdom  set  out  to  make  itself  over,  it  did  not  stick 
at  trifles.  Away  went  the  Daimios,  the  feudal  lords,  and  with 
them  their  soldier  retainers.  No  longer  should  it  be  said  that 
in  Japan  to  be  a  gentleman  one  must  fight,  and  to  fight  one 
must  be  a  gentleman.  Universal  conscription  set  the  rick- 
shawman  instantly  upon  a  level  with  the  haughty  samurai,  and 
the  shopkeeper  upon  a  level  with  both.  What  Europe  did  in 
a  century  or  two  Japan  did  at  one  neat  skip. 

Wanting  a  military  system,  Japan  did  not  wait  to  develop 
it,  but  quietly  took  possession  of  the  military  system  of  France. 
Later  on  she  went  to  school  to  Germany,  and  the  resultant 
army  was  partly  German  and  partly  French.  The  mixed 


314  JAPAN'S  ARMY  AND  NA  VY 

origin  was  reflected  in  the  army  garb.  The  Emperor's  body- 
guard served  in  the  full  uniform  of  the  French  lancers,  and  the 
Emperor  himself  wore  the  scarlet  kepi  and  trousers.  But  all 
other  branches  of  the  service  were  clad  like  the  Germans  in 
dark  blue  with  distinguishing  bands  of  red,  black  or  yellow  on 
their  flat  German  forage  caps.  The  Japanese  drill  was  Ger- 
man, the  gymnastics  German,  the  discipline  German  ;  and  the 
foot  soldiers  looked  like  nothing  so  much  as  South  German 
recruits. 

As  the  Jap  marched,  so  he  fought,  and  George  Lynch, 
who  watched  him  with  the  allies  in  China,  remarks  :  "  It  is 
simply  wonderful  how  quickly  they  move.  They  seem  to  do 
everything  at  the  double.  It  is  the  speed  not  of  nervousness, 
but  of  downright  eagerness.  They  fight  for  fighting's  sake, 
and  never  were  such  hilarious  fighters.  I  watched  their  drill, 
and,  my  goodness,  how  they  did  enjoy  it." 

For  the  Japanese  cavalry  not  so  much  can  be  said.  The 
Jap  is  not  built  for  horsemanship  ;  like  the  Scotchman  who 
could  not  get  into  the  Highlands,  "  he  hasna  the  legs."  Cap- 
tain Younghusband  says  that  the  pony  is  usually  master  of 
the  situation.  "  The  horses  are  small,  vicious  and  slow.  In 
shock  tactics  they  would  be  practically  useless.  Considered 
as  mounted  infantry  they  are  all  very  well,  but  as  cavalry 
not  to  be  compared  with  the  Cossacks." 

Not  so  the  artillery,  or  at  least  with  that  part  of  it 
which  depended  upon  the  men.  Like  their  manoeuvres  afoot, 
their  battery  was  amazingly  quick.  Henry  Norman,  the 
English  traveler  and  author,  describes  them  in  action  thus : 
"  Two  batteries  came  up  at  a  gallop,  with  perfect  stead- 
iness wheeled,  halted,  unlimbered,  came  to  the  '  action  front,' 
loaded,  and  fired,  with  a  smartness,  coolness  and  rapidity,  that 
could  hardly  have  been  excelled." 

The  Japanese  had  learned  among  many  other  things,  that 
a  good  soldier  is  twice  as  valuable  if  he  has  good  care,  an(J 


JAPAN'S  ARMY  AND  NAVY  315 

everything  which  goes  to  make  for  the  efficiency  of  troops  was 
carefully  attended  to.  The  rations  were  of  the  simplest  kind: 
rice,  dried  fish,  soy,  and  sometimes  meat,  but  always  ample, 
and  always  the  best  of  their  kind.  Their  medical  corps  could 
give  points  to  Europe.  Japanese  camps  were  singularly  free 
from  contagious  diseases,  and  as  for  the  hospitals,  no  one 
could  say  enough  to  their  praise.  In  summer  the  Jap  soldier 
was  attired  in  a  white  cotton  material,  which,  though  conspicu- 
ous, was  cool  and  easily  kept  clean,  while  the  winter  uniform 
differed  only  in  being  of  heavier  and  darker  material.  Each 
of  them  carried  a  long  cloth  bag,  in  which  was  a  reserve  supply 
of  sixty  rounds,  some  duplicate  parts  for  his  rifle,  a  full  kit  of 
medicine  and  instruments,  needles  and  buttons,  together  with 
rations  for  one  day.  These  latter  consisted  of  36  ounces  of 
rice,  4  ounces  of  meat,  and  4  ounces  of  vegetables,  kept  in  a 
tin  pail,  which  also  served  for  a  cooking  utensil.  He  was  also 
supplied  with  a  Murata  Magazine  rifle,  which  could  fire  eight 
shots,  or  be  used  as  a  single  loader.  The  bayonet  was  not 
usually  carried  fixed,  but  in  the  scabbard.  Two-thirds  of  the 
men  were  equipped  with  a  small  shovel  for  entrenching,  while 
the  remainder  were  furnished  with  picks. 

As  for  administrative  detail,  Japan  managed  that  with 
a  nicety  of  clockwork.  The  transport  service  was  incredibly 
perfect,  the  camp-kit  packed  into  one-third  less  space  than 
that  of  any  other  army,  and,  owing  to  the  efficiency  of  the 
commissariat,  always  turned  up  on  time.  The  Intelligence 
Department  had  sown  the  whole  East  with  its  spies,  and  its 
maps  were  miracles  of  accuracy.  The  field  telegraph,  with  its 
bamboo  poles,  proved  every  bit  as  practical  as  if  managed  by' 
Americans.  The  engineers  and  sappers  were  prepared  to  do 
their  work  in  masterly  fashion,  and  nothing  was  wanting  to 
make  the  Japanese  army  a  powerful  fighting  machine. 

Her  naval  personnel  numbered  31,379  officers  and  men, with 
a  reserve  of  6,227.     But  a  statement  of  her  position  at  the 


3i6  JAPAN'S  ARMY  AND   NAVY 

outbreak  of  hostilities  brought  to  light  the  fact  that  nearly  her 
entire  navy  was  mobilized  near  the  salient  points  in  the  great 
game  ;  all  the  battleships,  all  the  armored  cruisers,  73  torpedo 
boats,  and  9  of  the  destroyers  were  instantly  ready  for  assault 
or  defence. 

The  six  Japanese  battleships  comprised  some  of  the  best 
modern  type.  The  largest  was  the  Mikasa,  built  in  1900,  of 
15,363  tons  displacement,  exceeding  the  largest  Russian  battle- 
ship in  the  far  East,  the  Tzarevitch,  by  2000  tons.  The  princi- 
pal armament  of  both  of  these  battleships  consisted  of  1 2-inch 
guns,  of  which  each  carried  four ;  and  they  both  had  the  same 
speed,  eighteen  knots  an  hour.  The  Japanese  ships  that  were 
built  earlier  than  those  of  the  Mikasa  class,  were  not  of  great 
value  as  fighting  machines  and  hardly  regarded  as  full  line  of 
battleships.  Among  them,  as  of  similar  age,  must  be  included 
the  Chen-Yuen,  which  was  captured  from  the  Chinese.  But  since 
1897  f°ur  battleships  had  been  added  to  the  Japanese  navy,  all 
exceeding  15,000  tons  displacement,  all  having  1 2-inch  guns 
and  torpedo-tubes,  and  all  rated  at  eighteen  knots  an  hour. 
Japan  also  possessed  five  cruisers  of  between  9,000  and  10,000 
tons  displacement,  each  with  7-inch  armor,  carrying  8-inch  guns, 
and  with  a  speed  varying  from  twenty  to  twenty-two  knots. 

About  the  beginning  of  1904  Japan  bought,  in  anticipation 
of  war  with  Russia,  two  cruisers  which  had  been  built  at  Genoa 
for  the  Argentine  Republic.  They  left  that  port  with  British 
crews  on  board  and  commanded  by  British  officers  for  the  voy- 
age to  Japan,  through  the  Suez  Canal  and  the  Red  Sea. 
When  taken  possession  of  by  the  emergency  crew  for  the 
Japanese  Government,  their  equipment  and  armament  were  far 
from  complete.  It  was  a  question,  however,  of  getting  them 
out  of  the  Mediterranean  before  war  should  begin,  and  imme- 
diately on  their  safe  arrival  in  Japanese  waters  they  were  put 
into  commission. 

Japan    had    also  been   in  negotiation  with  Chili   for  the 


purchase  of  two  cruisers.  Under  a  convention  between  Chili 
and  Argentina  both  republics  were  to  sell  their  ships  of  war  ;  in 
other  words,  they  agreed  to  a  naval  disarmament.  The 
cruisers  bought  from  Argentina  were  named  the  Moreno  and 

o  o 

the  Rivadaria,  but  upon  their  change  of  ownership  they  were 
rechristened  the  Kasaga  and  the  Niasin.  Each  was  of  7,700 
tons  displacement ;  the  former  mounted  thirty-six  guns  and 
the  latter  thirty-five.  Japan  had  already  a  protected  cruiser 
called  the  Kasagi,  built  on  the  Delaware  by  the  Cramps,  and 
considered  one  of  the  best  vessels  in  the  Japanese  navy,  an 
armorclad,  4,670  tons  displacement,  with  two  8-inch  quick-firing 
rifles  and  ten  4.7-inch  quick-firing  rifles,  and  a  secondary  bat- 
tery of  smaller  guns. 

In  her  navy  Japan  possessed  a  small  but  thorough  modern 
equipment ;  with  naval  bases  at  Nagasaki,  Yokosuka,  Kobe, 
Kure,  and  Sasebo,  she  held  the  Straits  of  Korea,  dividing  the 
Russian  Squadron  at  Vladivostok  from  that  in  the  Gulf  of 
Pe-chi-li,  and  felt  entirely  secure  from  invasion  of  her  own  soil. 

Japan  conducted  all  her  preparations  for  war  with  greatest 
secrecy,  but,  so  far  as  it  was  possible  to  ascertain,  the  full  list 
of  her  naval  strength  in  the  Far  East  was  as  follows  : 

BATTLESHIPS 
Tons  Tons 

Mikasa 15,200  Yashima    .    .    .    .  ^  12,320 

Asahi 15,000  Fuji 12,320 

Hatsuse 15,000  Chen  Yu6n    ....  14,890 

Shikishima    ....  14,850 

PROTECTED    CRUISERS 

Tons  Tons 

Naniwa 5, 700  Takashiho     ....  3,700 

Chitose 4,760  Toushima 3, 420 

Kasagi 4,760  Akitsushina  ....  3,150 

Takasoga 4,300  Niitaka 3,42° 

Hashidate 4,277  Idsumi 3,000 

Houkushima     .    .    .  4,277  Chiyoda 2,450 

Matsushima  ....  4,277  Akashi 2,700 

Yoshino  ....  4,150  Suma 2,700 


318  JAPAN S  ARMY  AND  NAVY 

ARMORED    CRUISERS 
Tons  Ton» 

Yakumo 9,850  Iwate 9,75O 

Asama 9,750  Idzumo 9.75Q 

Tokiwa 9,75°  Azuma 9,436 

Kasaga 7,700  Niasin 7,700 

Besides  torpedo  boats  and  destroyers. 

It  may  be  said,  that  the  Japanese  navy  had  its  beginning 
in  1866,  coincident  with  her  re-awakening,  under  American 
instructors,  and  they  went  on  steadily  increasing  their  armored 
fleet,  in  addition  to  building  up  an  unarmored  fleet,  all  armed 
with  the  best  rifled  guns.  The  first  armored  ship  constructed 
for  Japan  was  built  on  the  Thames  and  was  launched  in  1877, 
about  six  years  before  our  new  navy  was  begun.  She  was  the 
Foo-So,  and  had  a  displacement  of  3,818  tons.  About  the 
same  time  contracts  were  made  in  England  for  the  two  com- 
posite armor-belted  corvettes,  the  Kon-Go  and  the  Hi-Yei. 
Then  in  1885  the  Naniwa  and  the  Takashiho,  built  by  the 
Armstrongs,  in  England,  were  launched.  They  were  protected 
cruisers  of  3,700  tons  displacement,  and  18  knots  speed,  and 
were  conspicuous  in  the  Japan-China  war.  The  United  States 
has  since  built  a  number  of  vessels  for  the  Mikado,  and  all 
Americans  were  interested  to  see  how  they  would  quit  them- 
selves in  the  stress  of  actual  warfare. 


CHAPTER   XXVIII. 

The  Army  and  Navy  of  Russia 

Russia's  Dilatory  Tactics  Favored  War  Preparations— Her  Bases  of  Supplies — Trans- 
portation of  Troops — The  Colossal  Russian  Army — Cossack  Cavalry — Her  Strength 
at  Sea. 

BY  dilatory  tactics  of  every  kind  Russia  tried  to  postpone 
the  inevitable  war  until  she  had  firmly  entrenched  her- 
self in  Manchuria  and  felt  secure  enough  to  crush  any 
antagonist.  She  was  not  ready  for  war  when  it  came,  though 
five  valuable  months  had  been  won  by  diplomacy  and  spent  in 
strengthening  her  position.  Pledged  though  she  was  to  with- 
draw from  Manchuria  on  October  8,  1903,  Russia  let  the  date 
pass  uncalendared.  Asked  by  Japan  to  show  her  purpose,  she 
succeeded  in  putting  off  the  Mikado  until  the  New  Year  had 
gone  by,  and  while  the  situation  was  growing  more  strained 
she  was  repairing  shipyards  and  fortifications,  strengthening 
the  supposedly  impregnable  Port  Arthur,  and  increasing  the 
natural  facilities  of  Dalny  and  Vladivostok. 

Vladivostok,  the  Eastern  terminus  of  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway,  with  the  tidewater  port  of  its  southern  branch  at 
Dalny,  were  the  chief  Russian  strongholds.  The  former 
enjoyed  a  harbor,  an  arsenal,  a  dry  and  floating  dock,  and  a 
base  of  coal  supply,  while  at  Dalny  were  to  be  found  a  harbor, 
a  refitting  yard,  and  a  coaling  station,  together  with  the  begin- 
nings of  other  facilities  and  enterprises  recently  laid  out  by 
Russia  on  an  extensive  scale. 

Port  Arthur  has  been  called  the  Gibraltar  of  the  Far 
East,  and  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Japanese  had 
stormed  it  in  1895  it  is  considered  a  formidable  stronghold, 

JIQ 


320  THE  ARMY  AND  NA  VY  OF  RUSSIA 

of  which  Russia  had  greatly  improved  the  security  during  her 
occupation,  and  had  so  refurnished  the  tidal  basin,  drydock, 
refitting  and  coaling  yard  that  it  was  iK  reality  a  point  of  great 
strategic  importance. 

Fortified  by  an  elaborate  scheme  of  defences,  Port  Arthur 
was  the  most  powerful  southerly  naval  station  which  the  Mus- 
covites possessed  in  Asia.  The  entrance  to  Port  Arthur 
is  also  guarded  by  nature.  It  is  extremely  narrow,  in  some 
places,  not  more  than  two  hundred  yards  wide.  For  this  reason 
Russians  had  boasted  that  it  was  as  nearly  impregnable  as  any 
naval  station  in  the  Orient. 

When  Russia  took  possession  of  Port  Arthur,  at  the  end 
of  the  Liau-Tong  Peninsula,  she  found  a  Chinese  arsenal, 
which  had  been  originally  constructed  under  the  direction  of 
European  engineers.  The  Russians,  however,  were  not  satis- 
fied with  the  plan  of  fortifications,  and  practically  rebuilt  the 
fortress. 

Like  Vladivostok,  Port  Arthur  lay  at  right  angles  to  the 
main  channel.  The  outer  harbor  is  deep,  but  the  water  in 
the  inner  harbor  would  not  float  the  largest  vessels.  All  ships 
having  a  draught  of  over  twenty-four  feet  must  lie  outside  in 
the  outer  roadstead,  where  they  were  open  to  attack. 

Russia  occupied  Port  Arthur  on  December  18,  1897.  In 
explaining  her  act  she  said  that  she  regarded  the  possession  of 
Port  Arthur  as  a  compensation  for  her  grievance  with  China. 

The  Russians  strengthened  the  series  of  fortifications 
known  as  the  Hwang-Chinshan  forts,  which  commanded  the 
entrance  of  the  harbor  to  the  east,  and  directly  behind  they 
rebuilt  a  chain  of  batteries,  which  were  intended  to  pour  down 
shot  and  shell  into  the  inner  harbor.  The  Laomuchu  battery 
was  so  placed  that  it  swept  the  approach  of  the  port  diagonally 
and  commanded  both  the  outer  and  inner  basins.  The  village 
of  Port  Arthur  was  situated  opposite  the  entrance  to  the  harbor. 

Despite  the  powerful  equipment  of  cannon  which  were  to 


THE  ARMY  AND  NA  VY  OF  RUSSIA  321 

play  on  vessels  approaching  Port  Arthur,  Japanese  strategists 
asserted  that  the  fortress  could  be  stormed  and  taken  by  a 
concerted  land  and  sea  attack.  Situated  on  a  peninsula,  its 
batteries  might  be  isolated  and  cut  off  from  supplies.  The 
peninsula  is  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
only  eighteen  miles  wide  in  some  places. 

Japan  was  deprived  of  Port  Arthur  as  the  result  of  the 
intervention  of  the  powers  at  the  close  of  the  China-Japanese 
War.  When  Russia  stepped  in  and  took  possession  of  the 
peninsula  later,  the  act  awakened  in  the  Japanese  a  certain 
hatred  of  the  Muscovites,  which  had  been  smouldering  up  to 
the  time  of  this  war. 

One  weak  point  in  the  Russian's  war  line  was  the  uncer- 
tain capability  of  the  great  railroad  with  which  they  had 
recently  spanned  Siberia.  Though  built  by  supposedly  com- 
petent engineers  and  equipped  with  the  finest  rolling  stock  of 
American  factories,  the  single-track  line  was  generally  consid- 
ered a  failure  by  foreigners  who  had  opportunity  to  inspect  it. 
Since  almost  all  of  the  Russian  soldiers,  arms  and  supplies  had 
to  be  carried  over  this  route  from  the  large  cities  of  European 
Russia,  it  was  early  evident  that  on  its  efficiency  would  depend 
the  Czar's  power  to  stand  the  demands  of  a  long  and  exhaust- 
ing war. 

While  on  American  heavily  ballasted  roadbeds  a  rail 
weighing  from  sixty  to  ninety  pounds  to  the  foot  is  the  ac- 
cepted standard,  it  has  been  stated  on  good  authority  that  a 
forty  pound  rail  was  used  in  crossing  the  Steppes,  on  a  road- 
bed of  none  too  solid  foundation. 

The  unbiased  opinion  of  an  experienced  American  .trav- 
eler who  crossed  Siberia  shortly  before  war  was  declared  may 
be  quoted  as  giving  succinctly  the  conditions  in  this  important 
connecting  link  as  they  were  just  before  hostilities  commenced. 

"This  talk,"  said  he,  "about  Russia  rushing  troops  and 
supplies  across  the  country  on  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  is 


322  THE  ARMY  AND  NA  VY  OF  RUSSIA 

amusing  to  one  who  has  been  over  that  road.  The  rails  are 
the  lightest  that  can  be  laid,  and  can  be  washed  away  by  the 
heavy  rains  that  fall  frequently,  or  the  thaws  that  flood  por- 
tions of  the  country  through  which  the  road  runs.  It  stands 
to  reason  that  a  roadbed  in  this  condition  cannot  take  the 
strain  of  such  heavy  traffic  as  would  be  imposed  by  the  trans- 
portation of  troops  and  war  munitions.  Why,  the  maximum 
speed  of  the  trains  is  twenty  miles  an  hour,  though  the  engines 
and  cars  can  stand  a  forty-mile  speed  without  being  pressed 
to  the  limit.  Then  there  is  another  reason  which,  I  think,  is 
quite  as  potent  as  the  condition  of  the  roadbed  against  the 
transportation  of  troops  in  great  numbers,  and  that  is  a  break 
in  the  road  at  Lake  Baikal.  This  break  is  125  miles  long,  and 
you  can  imagine  the  congestion  that  would  result.  Even  in 
the  course  of  ordinary  business  the  travel  between  the  two 
points  in  the  road  is  bad  enough.  Lake  Baikal  is  about  thirty 
miles  wide,  and  there  are  four  small  boats  about  as  large  as 
your  ocean-going  tugs  for  the  transportation  of  passengers  and 
freight  from  the  western  shore  to  the  eastern.  It  would  be 
impossible  to  carry  more  than  600  men  a  day  across  this  lake 
with  the  present  facilities,  and  heaven  only  knows  how  they 
would  manage  to  get  the  field  guns,  horses  and  supplies  over. 
Then,  on  the  other  side,  is  the  125  miles  break  in  the  railroad. 
Passengers  are  now  carried  over  this  stretch  in  carriages, 
sledges  and  sleighs,  but  the  soldiers  would  have  to  march  and 
drag  their  supplies  with  them. 

"  I  had  an  amusing  thing  happen  to  me  the  last  time  I  went 
over  the  Trans-Siberian.  Our  train  had  jumped  the  track,  and 
I  remarked  to  an  official  that  such  a  proceeding  was  dangerous 
business. 

"  'Oh,'  he  said,  '  that's  nothing  ;  we  have  run  off  the  rails  as 
often  as  eleven  times  a  day.' ' 

Notwithstanding  the  many  insecurities  of   her  position, 


THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  OF  RUSSIA  323 

Russia  had  mobilized  a  force  almost  equal  in  strength  and 
numbers  to  that  of  her  smaller  enemy. 

According  to  the  statement  issued  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Military  Information,  Russia  had  about  262,000  men 
stationed  in  Manchuria  and  on  her  line  of  railway  in  Eastern 
Siberia.  Russia  had,  according  to  the  report  a  yearly  contin- 
gent of  335,525  men  and  a  total  war  strength  of  5,757,620 
men.  The  peace  establishment  given  was  1,167,000  men,  or 
i.oi  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  It  was  estimated  that 
the  Russian  national  wealth  would  reach  $160  billions,  of 
which  $14  billions  were  movable  capital. 

The  Russian  railway  force  in  Southern  Manchuria  con- 
sisted of  four  brigades  of  about  22,000  men,  including  infan- 
try, artillery,  and  cavalry.  Out  of  these  forces  a  reserve  of 
10,000  men  was  disposed  so  as  to  garrison  the  important  points 
on  the  railway,  the  most  important  of  these  being  the  station  of 
Lia-o-yang,  where  a  force  of  at  least  3,000  men  was  maintained. 
There  were  said  to  be  about  15,000  men  at  Tsitsikar,  perhaps 
60,000  at  Harbin,  40,000  more  along  the  Sungari  River, 
20,000  at  Mukden,  20,000  at  Kirin  and  along  the  Nonni  River, 
5,000  at  the  Sungari  River  railway  bridge,  40,000  at  Vladivo- 
stok and  Nikolskoi,  35,000  at  Port  Arthur  and  some  5,000  men 
at  Dalny. 

An  official  handbook  of  Russia,  under  the  head  of  "  Mili- 
tary Service,"  which  became  compulsory  in  1874,  gives  an  idea 
of  the  immense  resources  from  which  the  Slav's  armies  were 
recruited  : 

"  All  the  male  population  capable  of  service,  from  the 
ages  of  2 1  to  43,  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  armed 
forces  of  the  state.  Some,  however,  belong  to  the  regular 
permanent  troops,  while  others  are  counted  as  militia,  opoltche- 
nie,  and  are  called  out  only  in  time  of  war,  and  then  princi- 
pally for  service  in  the  rear  of  the  regular  army.  The  general 
term  of  service  in  the  regular  army  is  eighteen  years,  four 


324  THE  ARMY  AND  NA  VY  OF  RUSSIA 

of  which  are  passed  with  the  colors,  and  fourteen  in  the 
reserves. 

"  The  term  of  active  service  is  diminished  in  proportion 
to  education,  the  shortest  term  being  one  year.  There  are  in 
Russia  a  great  many  exceptions  to  the  rule  of  obligatory  ser- 
vice, as  the  full  number  of  conscripts  afforded  by  the  whole 
population  is  not  necessary  to  complete  the  cadres  in  time  of 
peace.  For  instance,  the  cadres  of  the  Russian  army  on  a 
peace  footing  represent  about  900,000  men,  called  out  for  four 
years  ;  consequently  225,000  conscripts  are  required  annually ; 
but  in  view  of  completely  filling  up  the  ranks  of  the  army  in 
case  of  war,  the  yearly  contingent  is  fixed  at  265,000  men. 
The  population  furnishes  yearly  880,000  men  of  21  years  of 
age,  which  is  three  times  the  required  number.  Therefore  the 
remaining  two-thirds  have  to  be  relieved  in  some  way  or  other 
from  the  duties  of  active  service. 

"  The  principal  ground  for  exemption  is  physical  incapac- 
ity, and  for  this  reason  about  290,000  conscripts  are  made  free 
of  military  service  every  year.  In  the  next  place  the  privilege 
is  granted  for  domestic  reasons ;  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case 
of  an  only  son  of  a  family,  or  an  eldest  son  assisting  his  father 
when  his  brothers  are  not  ready  for  work.  Medical  men, 
clergymen,  dispensing  chemists,  teachers,  etc.,  are  at  once  in- 
cluded in  the  reserve  for  eighteen  years.  The  remainder  of 
the  superfluous  conscripts  are  exempted  by  drawing  lots.  Out 
of  the  yearly  contingent  of  265,000  men,  about  6,000  are  placed 
in  the  navy." 

Under  the  regime  in  force  in  1904  a  Russian  infantry  reg- 
iment had  four  battalions,  with  one  surgeon  in  each  battalion, 
and  a  regimental  surgeon,  making  five  in  all.  A  regiment  of 
infantry  is  made  up  of  sixteen  companies. 

The  Russian  troops  in  the  field  wear  white  blouses,  dark 
blue  trousers  and  black  leather  boots,  which  come  over  the 
trousers ;  the  officers,  close-fitting  white  frock  coats,  dark  blue 


THE  ARMY  AND  NA  VY  OF  RUSSIA  325 

trousers  and  black  high  boots,  in  which  the  legs  of  the  trousers 
are  tucked. 

The  Russian  batteries  were  of  small  calibre  and  of  old  and 
obselete  style.  The  infantry  soldier  carried  no  bayonet  scab- 
bard, and  the  bayonet  was  always  fixed.  The  ammunition  he 
carried  in  pouches  from  the  belt. 

The  Cossack  cavalry  were  mounted  on  strong,  shaggy 
ponies.  They  carried  a  heavy  sabre  and  rifle  slung  over  their 
shoulders.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  government  did  not 
provide  the  troops  with  tentage.  The  men  were  supposed  to 
build  a  sort  of  tent  for  themselves  of  whatever  material  avail- 
able from  their  surroundings. 

Their  rations  were  of  the  simplest  kind :  hard  brown 
bread,  salt,  pepper  and  tea,  in  a  small  amount  given  to  every 
soldier  for  his  day's  ration.  They  were  supposed  to  forage  in 
the  country  that  they  occupied,  and  were  therefore  not  prop- 
erly provided  with  food. 

Their  medical  department  was  not  at  all  up  to  the  stan- 
dard of  the  Japanese.  The  hospital  beds  were  constructed  of 
iron  legs  with  connecting  iron  bars  to  form  the  head  and  foot ; 
across  this  were  laid  rough  boards.  A  sack  filled  with  straw 
on  this  constituted  the  hospital  bed  for  the  soldier. 

The  Russian  soldiers  in  China  did  not  carry  the  "  first  aid  " 
package,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  Red  Cross  Society  they 
would  have  fared  badly. 

The  Russian  navy  in  the  Far  East  was  slightly  weaker 
than  the  Japanese,  though,  could  the  Czar  have  mobilized  his 
Baltic  and  Euxine  squadrons,  he  would  have  been  overwhelm- 
ingly stronger  than  the  Mikado.  On  the  Eastern  seaboard  he 
had  three  important  naval  bases,  Port  Arthur,  Dalny,  and 
Vladivostok.  Dalny,  the  "  fiat  city,"  and  projected  terminus 
of  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  extension  from  Vladivostok, 
was  scarcely  yet  completed,  and  hence  the  fleet,  divided  in  two 
squadrons,  lay  at  Vladivostok  and  Port  Arthur.  This  separation 


326  THE  ARMY  AND  NA  VY  OF  RUSSIA 

was,  from  the  first,  a  weak  point  of  which  the  Japanese 
took  the  fullest  advantage  in  striking  their  fatal  blow  at  Port 
Arthur.  Had  the  two  divisions  of  the  Russian  fleet  succeeded 
in  joining  forces  the  sea  fighting  would  probably  have  been 
much  more  stubborn. 

Although  no  one,  outside  of  the  Russian  officials  them- 
selves, was  informed  with  absolute  certainty  of  her  military 
strength,  her  available  naval  forces  at  the  beginning  of  hostili- 
ties were  believed  bv  accurate  statisticians  to  consist  of  the 

J 

following  vessels  : 

AT  OR  NEAR  PORT  ARTHUR. 

BATTLESHIPS. 

Displacement.  Principal  Armament. 

Retvizan 12,700  Four  12 -inch,  twelve  6 -inch  guns. 

Pobieda 12,700  Four  lo-inch,  eleven  6-inch  guns. 

Peresviet 12,700  Four  lo-inch,  eleven  6-inch  guns. 

Petropavlovsk 10,960  Four  12 -inch,  twelve  6 -inch  guns. 

Poltava 10,960  Four  i2-inch,  twelve  6-inch  guns. 

Sevastopol 10,960  Four  12 -inch,  twelve  6-inch  guns. 

Czarevitch 13,110  Four  1 2-inch,  twelve  6-inch  guns. 

ARMORED   CRUISER,  FIRST-CLASS. 

Bayan 7,i8o  Two  8 -inch,  eight  6-inch  guns. 

PROTECTED   CRUISERS,  SECOND  CLASS. 

Boyarin 3,200  Six  4. 7-inch  guns. 

Variag 6,500  Twelve  6-inch  guns. 

Pallada 6,630  Eight  6-inch  guns. 

Almaz 6,500  Twelve  6-inch  guns. 

Diana 6,630  Eight  6-inch  guns. 

Novik 3,000  Six  4. /-inch  guns. 

Aurora 6,630  Eight  6 -inch  guns. 

Askold 6,500  Twelve  6-inch  guns. 

UNPROTECTED  CRUISERS,   THIRD   CLASS. 

Armored  gunboats 3  Torpedo-boat  destroyers  ...  19 

Unarmored  gunboats    ....  4            Torpedo  boats 6 

Torpedo  gunboats 2  And  various  smaller  craft. 

Auxiliary  cruiser i 


THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  OF  RUSSIA  327 

AT  VLADIVOSTOK. 

ARMORED    CRUISERS,    FIRST    CLASS. 

Displacement.  Principal  Armament. 

Gromoboi 12,336  Four  8-inch,  sixteen  6-inch  guns. 

Rossia 12,200  Four  8-inch,  sixteen  6-inch  guns, 

Rurik    I0»933  Four  8-inch,  sixteen  6-inch  guns. 

PROTECTED    CRUISER. 

Bogatyr    6,500  Twelve  6-inch  guns. 

Torpedo  boats,   10. 

By  the  middle  of  April,  1904,  Russia  had  sustained  the 
complete  loss  of  six  vessels.  The  cruiser  Variag  and  gunboat 
Korietz  were  sunk  in  Chemulpo  by  the  Japanese  on  February 
9th;  the  cruiser  Boy  arm  went  down  two  days  later;  on  the 
twelfth  of  February  a  mine-laying  transport,  the  Yenesei  was 
blown  up  by  one  of  her  own  mines;  the  torpedo  boat,  Skort, 
met  a  similar  fate  on  March  i3th;  and  on  April  i3th,  the 
battleship  Petropavlovsk,  with  Admiral  Makaroff ,  his  staff,  and 
more  than  600  men,  was  blown  up  by  the  Japanese  off  Port 
Arthur  and  sent  to  the  bottom  in  less  than  three  minutes. 
The  same  day  a  destroyer,  the  Strashni,  was  shelled  and  sunk. 

Of  the  remaining  battleships  and  cruisers  at  Port  Arthur, 
every  one,  except  the  Peresviet,  had  been  more  or  less  damaged 
by  shell  or  torpedo. 

In  financial  strength,  which  plays  the  sleeping  partner  in 
the  business  of  modern  war,  Russia's  position  was  better  than 
Japan's,  though  neither  country  possessed  the  funds  or  credit 
of  some  other  great  modern  nations.  Russia's  great  revenue 
was  used  up  in  the  great  enterprises  which  lay  in  governmental 
control;  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  and  the  development  of 
Manchuria  had  helped  to  turn  her  $100,000,000  of  surplus  into 
a  considerable  yearly  deficit.  On  the  other  hand,  Japan's  debt 
had  mounted  enormously  since  her  war  with  China,  and  her 


328  THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  OF  RUSSIA 

expenses  were  increasing  with  every  year  of  her  progress  ill 
modern  civilization. 

The  following  figures  are  interesting  for  comparison  of 
the  two  countries'  resources  at  the  outset  of  the  war: 

Japan.  Russia. 

Area  square  miles 162,655  8,650,081 

Population     44,000,000          140,000,000 

Yearly  revenue $112,000,000  $1,000,000,000 

Foreign  commerce    250,000,000         700,000,000     \ 

Their  relative  strength,  however,  was  best  showrn  on  the 
stock  market.  On  February  i3th  Japanese  four  per  cent, 
bonds  sold  in  London  at  69^,  while  Russian  four  per  cent, 
brought  90^.  Making  allowance  for  the  support  which  the 
Russian  government  was  supposed  to  be  giving  its  securities 
for  the  sake  of  national  credit,  a  favorable  sentiment  inclined 
to  the  Russian  investments ;  and  the  fact  that  a  large  amount 
of  her  certificates  were  held  in  France,  practically  insured  that 
any  subsequent  loans  would  be  placed  with  the  thrifty  inhabi- 
tants of  that  country.  On  the  other  hand,  Japan  had  tried, 
not  long  before,  to  negotiate  a  loan  in  this  country,  and  had 
met  with  little  encouragement;  Americans  in  general  feeling 
that  other  investments  were  preferable  to  the  pledges  of  a 
country  already  deeply  mortgaged  and  about  to  embark  on  a 
costly  war. 


THE  BAND  OF   A  COSSACK  REGIMENT   PLAYING    MARTIAL   MUSIC 

The  Russian  troops,  unlike  troops  of  other  countries,  inarch  to  the  music  of  their  own  songs,  accompanied 
by  cymbals,  bells  and  tambourines  struck  with  a  drum  stick.  Any  assembly  of  Russian  peasant*,  even  a 
group  of  children,  can  sing  magnificently,  taking  all  the  parts  correctly.  " 


THE  HUMAN  LADDER 

The  brave  Russian  Captain  Lebedief ,  with  sword  and  revolver,  repelled  three  of  these  furious 
Japanese  assaults  on  a  fort  at  Port  Arthur  before  he  was  swept  from  the  wall.  This  was  one 
of  the  last  forts  to  be  taken  before  the  fortress  surrendered,  January  i,  1905. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

The  Beginning  and  Causes  of  a  Great  War 

Many  Causes  of  the  Rupture  between  Russia,  the  Great  Empire  of  the  East 
and  Japan,  the  Island  Kingdom — A  Long  Period  of  Negotiations — War  Hangs 
in  the  Balance — Statements  Issued  by  Contending  Parties. 

THE  fundamental  causes    which  for  half  a  century  had 
been  leading  up  to  the  outbreak  of  1904  were  the  natural 
antagonisms  between  the  national  ambitions  of  both 
Russia  and  England.     Far  seeing  English  statesmen  have  real- 
ized that  the  supremacy  of  that  country  is  dependent  upon  the 
superiority  of  her  navy,  made  necessary  by  her  insular  position. 

As  a  logical  result  of  Russia's  policy  of  continental  expan- 
sion, eventually  her  interests  will  come  into  conflict  with  Eng- 
land's desire  for  continued  supremacy  of  the  high  seas. 

English  thinkers  have  been  keenly  alive  to  the  gravity  of 
this  situation,  and  British  diplomatic  intrigue  for  at  least  two 
generations  of  statesmanship  has  been  guided  toward  the  pre- 
vention of  Russia's  naval  growth,  which  once  started,  her  im- 
mense natural  resources  obviously  threaten  England's  ascend- 
ency on  the  sea.  British  diplomacy  so  far  has  been  pre-emin- 
ently successful,  to  the  deep  chagrin  of  the  Czar's  ministers. 

With  the  exception  of  Russia's  sea-ports  on  the  Baltic, 
which,  for  a  great  part  of  the  year  are  practically  closed  by  the 
rigors  of  semi-arctic  climate  conditions,  her  only  other  undis- 
puted deep  water  port  was  Vladivostok  on  the  Japan  Sea  which 
suffers  from  similar  climatic  disadvantages.  The  chief  object 
of  Russia's  occupation  of  Manchuria  was  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  at  Port  Arthur  a  harbor  open  to  the  sea  the 
entire  year. 

329 


330          BEGINNI\7G  AND  CAUSES  OF  A  GREAT  WAR 

Antagonism  to  this  happened  to  unite  the  interests  of 
Great  Britain  and  Japan.  Therefore,  England's  traditional 
policy  made  her  the  natural  ally  of  Japan  in  this  struggle. 

The  struggle,  which  began  actively  with  the  naval  battle 
on  Monday,  January  9,  1904,  off  Port  Arthur,  on  the  coast  of 
China,  had  been  brewing  for  many  years,  and  may  be  ascribed 
largely  to  the  greed  of  both  Japan  and  Russia  to  become  the 
owners  and  possessors  of  the  small  country,  which  has  been 
known,  on  account  of  its  solitary  existence  and  its  aloofness 
from  other  nations,  as  the  "  Hermit  Kingdom. "  Better  known 
as  Korea,  it  is  a  peninsula,  extending  down  between  the  Yellow 
Sea  and  the  Japan  Sea,  and  only  a  few  hours'  sail  from  the 
Island  Kingdom. 

There  was  another  cause  for  this  war,  which  must  not  be 
overlooked,  and  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  feeling  of  revenge 
on  the  part  of  Japan  for  the  loss  of  the  fruit  of  her  victory 
over  China  in  1895.  Through  diplomatic  manipulations, 
Russia  gained  possession  of  Port  Arthur,  and  the  territory 
which  Japan  had  actually  taken  by  force  from  China,  and 
which  rightly  belonged  to  her,  but,  with  the  aid  of  other 
European  countries,  Russia  succeeded  in  getting  the  full  con- 
trol of  Port  Arthur,  and  later  becoming  supreme  in  Manchuria, 
practically  annexed  that  entire  territory  to  the  Russian  domain. 
Hence  Japan  had  been  preparing  to  avenge  herself  upon  the 
powerful  nation. 

Russia,  as  it  has  appeared,  agreed  to  vacate  Manchuria 
the  8th  of  October,  1903,  but  failed  to  do  so.  On  the  other 
hand  she  steadily  encroached  upon  Japan's  interests  in  Korea. 
The  Mikado  demanded,  on  the  part  of  Japan,  that  the  Czar 
should  carry  out  his  pledge  and  recognize  Korea  as  a  Japanese 
sphere  of  influence.  All  offers  of  compromise  were  spurned, 
and  Japan  strengthened  her  position  by  an  alliance  made  with 
Great  Britain  in  1902.  The  latter  country  saw  that  it  was  to 
her  interest  to  have  an  ally  in  the  Far  East  to  oppose  the 


BEGINNING  AND  CAUSES  OF  A  GREAT  WAR         33i 

progress  of  Russia  towards  acquiring  supreme  influence  in  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere.  Finally,  Japan  declared  that  she  was 
ready  to  fight  for  her  rights,  even  unaided. 

Both  sides  in  the  struggle  issued  statements  defining  and 
describing  their  respective  positions,  and  the  causes  which  led 
>to  a  break  in  the  peace  negotiations  between  the  two  countries, 
and  leaving  it  finally  to  the  arbitrament  of  the  sword.  We 
give  here  both  statements. 

RUSSIA'S  STATEMENT 

By  an  official  communication  the  Russian  account  of  the 
negotiations  which  led  to  the  rupture,  was  as  follows: 

"Last  year  the  Tokio  Cabinet,  under  the  pretext  of 
establishing  the  balance  of  power  and  a  more  settled  order  of 
things  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  submitted  to  the  imperial 
government  a  proposal  for  a  revision  of  the  existing  treaties 
with  Korea. 

"  Russia  consented,  and  Viceroy  AlexiefT  was  charged  to 
draw  up  a  project  for  a  new  understanding  with  Japan  in 
co-operation  with  the  Russian  Minister  at  Tokio,  who  was 
entrusted  with  the  negotiations  with  the  Japanese  government. 
Although  the  exchange  of  views  with  the  Tokio  Cabinet  on 
this  subject  were  of  a  friendly  character,  Japanese  social  circles 
and  the  local  and  foreign  press  attempted  in  every  way  to 
produce  a  warlike  ferment  among  the  Japanese  and  to  drive 
the  government  into  an  armed  conflict  with  Russia.  Under 
the  influence  thereof,  the  Tokio  Cabinet  began  to  formulate 
greater  and  greater  demands  in  the  negotiations,  at  the  same 
time  taking  most  extensive  measures  to  make  the  country 
ready  for  war. 

"All  these  circumstances  could  not,  of  course,  disturb 
Russia's  equanimity,  but  they  induced  her  also  to  take  military 
and  naval  measures.  Nevertheless,  to  preserve  peace  in  the 
"Par  East,  Russia,  so  far  as  her  incontestable  rights  and  interests 


332          BEGIXXfXG  AXD  CAUSES  OF  A  GREAT  WAR 

permitted,  gave  the  necessary  attention  to  the  demands  of  the 
Tokio  Cabinet  and  declared  herself  ready  to  recognize  Japan's 
privileged  commercial  and  economic  position  in  the  Korean 
peninsula,  with  the  concession  of  the  right  to  protect  it  by 
military  force  in  the  event  of  disturbances  in  that  country. 

"  At  the  same  time,  while  rigorously  observing  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  her  policy  regarding  Korea,  whose  inde- 
pendence and  integrity  were  guaranteed  by  previous  under- 
standings with  Japan  and  by  treaties  with  other  powers,  Russia 
insisted  on  three  points: 

"  One — On  a  mutual  and  unconditional  guarantee  of  this 
principle. 

'Two — On  an  undertaking  to  use  no  part  of  Korea  for 
strategic  purposes,  as  the  authorization  of  such  action  on  the 
part  of  any  foreign  power  was  directly  opposed  to  the  princi- 
ple of  the  independence  of  Korea. 

'Three — On  the  preservation  of  the  full  freedom  of  nav- 
igation of  the  straits  of  Korea. 

"  The  project  elaborated  in  this  sense  did  not  satisfy  the 
Japanese  government,  which  in  its  last  proposals  not  only 
declined  to  accept  the  conditions  which  appeared  as  the  guar- 
antee of  the  independence  of  Korea,  but  also  began  at  the 
same  time  to  insist  on  provisions  to  be  incorporated  in  a  pro- 
ject regarding  the  question  of  Manchuria.  Such  demands  on 
the  part  of  Japan,  naturally,  were  admissible,  the  question  of 
Russia's  position  in  Manchuria,  concerning  in  the  first  place 
China,  but  also  all  the  Powers  having  commercial  interests  in 
China. 

"The  imperial  government,  therefore,  saw  absolutely  no 
reason  to  include  in  a  special  treaty  with  Japan  regarding 
Korean  affairs,  any  provisions  concerning  territory  occupied 
by  Russian  troops.  The  imperial  government,  however,  did 
not  refuse,  so  long  as  the  occupation  of  Manchuria  lasts,  to 
recognize  both  the  sovereignty  of  the  Emepror  of  China  in 


BEGINNING  AND  CAUSES  OF  A  GREAT  WAR          333 

Manchuria,  and  also  the  rights  acquired  there  by  other  Powers 
through  treaties  with  China.  A  declaration  to  this  effect  had 
already  been  made  to  the  foreign  cabinets. 

"  In  view  of  this,  the  imperial  government,  after  charging 
its  representatives  at  Tokio  to  present  its  reply  to  the  last  pro- 
posal of  Japan,  was  justified  in  expecting  the  Tokio  Cabinet 
to  take  into  account  the  considerations  set  forth  above,  and 
that  it  would  appreciate  the  wish  manifested  by  Russia  to  come 
to  a  peaceful  understanding  with  Japan.  Instead  of  this,  the 
Japanese  government,  not  even  awaiting  this  reply,  decided  to 
break  off  negotiations  and  suspend  diplomatic  relations.  The 
imperial  government,  while  laying  on  Japan  the  full  responsi- 
bility for  any  consequences  of  such  a  course  of  action,  will 
await  the  development  of  events,  and  the  moment  it  becomes 
necessary,  will  take  the  most  decisive  measures  for  the  protec- 
tion of  its  rights  and  interests  in  the  Far  East." 

JAPAN'S  STATEMENT 

The  following  is  the  text  of  a  statement  issued  by  the 
Japanese  government  setting  forth  its  position: 

"SECTION  i. — It  being  indispensable  to  the  welfare  and 
safety  of  Japan  to  maintain  the  independence  and  territorial 
integrity  of  Korea  and  to  safeguard  her  paramount  interests 
therein,  the  Japanese  government  finds  it  impossible  to  view 
with  indifference  any  action  endangering  the  position  of 
Korea,  whereas  Russia,  notwithstanding  her  solemn  treaty, 
with  China,  and  her  repeated  assurances  to  the  Powers,  not 
only  continues  her  occupation  of  Manchuria,  but  has  taken 
aggressive  measures  in  Korean  territory.  Should  Manchuria 
be  annexed  to  Russia  the  independence  of  Korea  would  natur- 
ally be  impossible. 

"The  Japanese  government,  therefore,  being  desirous  of 
securing  permanent  peace  for  Eastern  Asia,  by  means  of  direct 
negotiations  with  Russia  with  the  view  of  arriving  at  a  friendly 


334          BEGINNING  AND  CAUSES  OF  A  GREAT  WAR 

adjustment  of  their  mutual  interests  in  both  Manchuria  and 
Korea  where  their  interests  met,  communicated  toward  the  end 
of  July  last  such  desire  to  the  Russian  government,  and  invited 
its  adherence.  To  this  the  Russian  government  expressed  a 
willing  assent,  Accordingly,  on  the  i2th  of  August  the  Japa- 
nese government  proposed  to  Russia  through' its  representa- 
tive at  St.  Petersburg  the  base  of  an  agreement,  which  was 
substantially  as  follows: 

"  i — -A  mutual  engagement  to  respect  the  independence 
and  territorial  integrity  of  the  Chinese  and  Korean  empires. 

"  2 — A  mutual  engagement  to  maintain  for  the  people 
an  equal  opportunity  for  the  commercial  industry  of  all  nations 
with  the  natives  of  those  countries. 

"  3 — A  reciprocal  recognition  of  Japan's  preponderating 
interests  in  Korea,  and  that  Russia  has  special  interest  in  rail- 
way enterprise  in  Manchuria,  and  a  mutual  recognition  of  the 
respective  rights  of  Japan  to  take  measures  necessary  for  the 
protection  of  the  above-mentioned  interests  so  far  as  the  prin- 
ciple of  Article  i  is  infringed. 

"  4 — The  recognition  by  Russia  of  the  exclusive  rights  of 
Japan  to  give  advice  and  assistance  to  Korea  in  the  interest  of 
reform  and  good  government. 

"  5 — The  engagement  on  the  part  of  Russia  to  unimpede 
the  eventual  extension  of  the  Korean  railway  into  Southern 
Manchuria  so  as  to  connect  with  Eastern  China  and  the  Shan- 
hai-Kwan-New-Chwang  lines. 

"  It  was  the  intention  of  the  Japanese  government  origi- 
nally that  a  conference  should  take  place  between  the  represen- 
tatives at  St.  Petersburg  and  the  Russian  authorities,  so  as  to 
facilitate  progress  as  much  as  possible  in  reaching  a  solution  of 
the  situation,  but  the  Russian  government  absolutely  refused 
to  do  so  on  the  plea  that  the  Czar  planned  a  trip  abroad,  and 
for  other  reasons  it  was  unavoidably  decided  to  conduct  the 
negotiations  at  Tokio. 


BEGINNING  AND  CAUSES  OF  A  GREAT  WAR         335 

"  It  was  not  until  October  3d  that  the  Russian  govern- 
ment presented  counterproposals,  in  which  it  declined  to 
engage  in  respect  to  the  sovereignty  and  territorial  integrity 
of  China,  and  stipulated  the  maintenance  of  the- principle  of 
equal  opportunities  for  the  commerce  and  industry  of  all  nations 
in  China,  and  requested  that  Japan  declare  Manchuria  and  its 
littoral  as  being  entirely  outside  of  her  sphere  and  interest. 
She  further  put  several  restrictions  upon  Japan's  freedom  of 
action  in  Korea;  for  instance,  while  recognizing  Japan's  right 
to  despatch  troops  when  necessary  for  the  protection  of  her 
interests  in  Korea,  Russia  refused  to  allow  her  to  use  any  por- 
tion of  Korean  territory  for  strategical  purposes. 

"  In  fact,  Russia  went  so  far  as  to  propose  to  establish  a 
neutral  zone  in  Korean  territory  north  of  the  39th  parallel. 
The  Japanese  government  utterly  failed  to  see  why  Russia, 
who  professed  no  intention  of  absorbing  Manchuria,  should  be 
disinclined  to  insert  in  the  convention  a  clause  in  complete 
harmony  with  her  own  repeatedly  declared  principle  respecting 
the  sovereignty  and  territorial  integrity  of  China. 

"  Furthermore  this  refusal  of  the  Russian  government  im- 
pressed the  Japanese  government  all  the  more  with  the  neces- 
sity of  the  insertion  of  a  clause  to  the  effect  that  Japan  has 
important  commercial  interests  in  Manchuria  and  entertains 
no  small  hopes  of  their  further  development,  and  that  politi- 
cally Japan  has  even  interests  there  by  reasons  of  its  relations 
to  Korea,  so  that  she  could  not  possibly  recognize  Manchuria 
as  being  entirely  outside  her  sphere  of  interest.  These  reasons 
decided  Japan  absolutely  to  reject  the  Russian  proposal.  The 
Japanese  government  explained  the  above  views,  and  at  the 
same  time  introduced  other  necessary  amendments  in  the 
Russian  counterproposal. 

"They  further  proposed  with  regard  to  a  neutral  zone 
that  if  one  was  to  be  created  it  should  be  established  on  both 
sides  of  the  boundary  line  between  Manchuria  and  Korea 


336          BEGINNING  AND  CAUSES  OF  A  GREAT  WAR 

and  of  equal  width,  say  fifty  kilometres.  After  repeated  dis- 
cussions at  Tokio,  the  Japanese  government  finally  presented 
to  the  Russian  government  their  definite  amendment  on 
October  i3th. 

"The  Japanese  government  then  frequently  urged  the 
Russian  government  for  a  reply.  In  that  reply  Russia  sup- 
pressed clauses  relating  to  Manchuria  so  as  to  make  the  pro- 
posed convention  apply  entirely  to  Korea,  and  maintained  its 
original  demand  in  regard  to  the  non-employment  of  Korean 
territory  for  strategical  purposes,  as  well  as  a  neutral  zone,  but 
the  exclusion  of  Manchuria  from  the  proposed  convention 
was  contrary  to  the  original  object  of  the  negotiations,  which 
were  to  remove  causes  of  conflict  between  the  two  countries 
by  a  friendly  arrangement  of  their  interests  both  in  Manchuria 
and  Korea. 

'  The  Japanese  government  asked  the  Russian  govern- 
ment to  reconsider  the  question,  and  again  proposed  the 
removal  of  the  restriction  regarding  the  use  of  Korean  terri- 
tory and  the  entire  suppression  of  the  neutral  zone  on  the 
ground  that  if  Russia  was  opposed  to  the  establishment  of 
one  in  Manchuria  it  should  not  establish  one  in  Korea. 

"The  last  reply  of  Russia  was  received  at  Tokio  on 
January  6th.  In  this  reply  it  is  true  that  Russia  proposed  to 
agree  to  insert  the  following  clause  in  the  proposed  agree- 
ment: 

" 'The  recognition  by  Japan  of  Manchuria  and  its  littoral 
as  outside  her  sphere  and  interest,  whilst  Russia  within  the 
limits  of  that  province  would  not  impede  Japan,  or  any  other 
Power,  in  the  enjoyment  of  rights  and  privileges  acquired  by 
them  under  existing  treaties  with  China  exclusive  of  the  estab- 
lishment. ' 

"  But  this  was  proposed  to  be  agreed  upon  only  upon  con- 
ditions maintaining  the  clauses  regarding  a  neutral  zone  in 
Korean  territory  and  the  employment  of  Korean  territory  for 


BEGINNING  AND  CAUSES  OF  A  GREAT  WAR         337 

strategical  purposes,  the  conditions  whereof  were  impossible  to 
Japan's  acceptance,  as  had  already  been  fully  explained  to 
them.  It  should  further  be  observed  that  no  mention  was 
made  at  all  of  the  territorial  integrity  of  China  in  Manchuria, 
and  it  must  be  self-evident  to  everybody  that  the  engagement 
now  proposed  by  Russia  would  be  unpractical  in  value  so  long 
as  it  was  unaccompanied  by  a  definite  stipulation  regarding  the 
territorial  integrity  of  China  in  Manchuria,  since  treaty  rights 
are  only  co-existing  with  sovereignty. 

"  Eventually  absorption  of  Manchuria  by  Russia  would 
annul  at  once  those  rights  and  privileges  acquired  by  the 
Powers  in  Manchuria  by  virtue  of  treaties  with  China." 


~< 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

Peace  or  War 

THE  CRISES  PRECEDING  HOSTILITIES 

The  Japanese  "  Monroe  Doctrine  " — Russian  Pledges  vs.  Russian  Actions — Japanese 
Military  and  Naval  Activity — Significant  Japanese  Imperial  Ordinances — The 
Sinews  of  War — Depression  of  Values  on  Stock  Exchange — Secrecy  of  Negotia- 
tions— War  Inevitable. 

THE  calm  before  the  storm  was  never  more  indicative  of 
the  violence  of  the  subsequent  outbreak  than  the  many 
quiet  but  tensely  significant    tremors  which   thrilled 
throughout  the  Island  Empire  during  the  weeks  immediately 
preceding  hostilities.     The  usually  peaceful  Japanese  appar- 
ently showed  no  outward  change  of  his  Oriental  placidity,  but, 
under  the  surface,  countless  indications  of  the  approaching 
storm   revealed   to   the    observing   eye   the   tension   of   the 
moment. 

To  clearly  understand  the  situation,  a  summary  statement 
of  the  events  which  shaped  the  crisis  must  be  considered.  In 
1895  Japan  waged  a  successful  war  against  China,  for  the  pur- , 
pose  of  ending  an  intolerable  protectorate  exercised  by  China 
over  Korea — acting  in  this  matter  very  much  as  the  United 
States  did  in  waging  a  war  of  liberation  for  Cuba.  At  the  end 
of  that  war,  Japan  actually  occupied  the  greater  part  of  Man- 
churia, as  an  indemnity  for  the  war ;  and  China,  in  her  treaty 
of  peace,  had  definitely  ceded  the  territory  to  Japan.  Russia, 
alleging  that  occupation  of  Manchuria  by  Japan  was  a  menace 
to  the  peace  of  the  Orient,  then  secured  the  co-operation  of 
Germany  and  France  to  oust  Japan  from  Manchuria.  The 
sequel  to  this  was  unopposed  occupation  of  Kiao-Ch.au  by 

338 


PEACE  OR  WAR  339 

Germany  and  of  Port  Arthur  by  Russia,  and  the  consequent 
real  and  constant  peril  to  the  peace  of  the  Far  East.  Mean- 
while, Korea  was  tactily  and  generally  recognized  to  be  an 
exclusive  "sphere  of  influence"  of  Japan,  but  open  to  general 
trade.  The  Nishi-Rosen  convention  of  1898  was  intended  by 
Japan  to  secure,  so  far  as  concerned  Russia,  immunity  against 
aggression  in  Korea.  The  necessity  of  preventing  ascendency 
in  Korea  of  any  potential  enemy  is  tradition  and  a  cardinal 
principle  of  Japanese  diplomacy.  Its  maintenance  is  regarded 
by  Japan  as  even  more  vital  to  her  than  maintenance  of  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  is  regarded  as  vital  by  the  United  States. 

The  next  chapter  opens  with  the  "Boxer"  outbreak  in 
1900.  After  that  disturbance  ended,  the  several  Powers  con- 
cerned in  restoring  order  in  China  adopted  a  definite  treaty 
of  peace,  according  to  which  it  was  agreed  to  respect,  even  to 
maintain,  the  integrity  of  China.  Russia  was  a  signatory  of 
this  treaty.  In  consonance  with  the  requirements  of  her 
treaty  obligations,  Russia  surprised  those  .familiar  with  her 
shrewd  and  unscrupulous  aggressive  policy  by  voluntarily  fix- 
ing a  term  within  which,  after  ratification  of  the  treaty,  she 
would  evacuate  Manchuria;  her  troops  having  been  mean- 
while retained  there  to  guard  her  railways.  When  this  term 
expired,  April,  1903,  Russia  had  neither  withdrawn  her  troops 
nor  evinced  any  serious  intention  to  do  so.  In  view  of  special 
interests  involved,  Japan  pressed  Russia  with  inquiries  to 
ascertain  her  real  purpose  concerning  Manchuria.  Since  both 
England  and  the  United  States  were  also  manifesting  great 
interest  in  the  question,  it  is  probable  that  Russia  was  espe- 
cially inclined  to  make  a  satisfactory  reply.  In  any  event, 
Russia  then  assured  Japan  that  evacuation  would  be  accom- 
plished within  a  further  period  of  six  months.  By  October  8, 
1903,  the  date  thus  fixed,  Russian  pledges  were  still  unkept. 
On  the  contrary,  Russia  had  in  the  interim  been  busy  building 
fortifications,  sending  out  troops  and  supplies,  adding  to  i--r 


340  PEACE  OR  WAR 

Asiatic  fleet ;  had  even  occupied  new  posts,  and  given  evidences 
of  an  intention,  not  merely  to  remain  in  Manchuria,  but  also 
to  extend  the  scope  of  her  aggressions  even  to  Korea. 

After  that  time,  Japan  patiently,  yet  with  the  persist- 
ency born  of  vital  motives,  pressed  Russia  in  negotiation,  with 
a  view  to  arrive  at  a  peaceful  settlement  of  differences,  and 
to  obtain  a  guarantee  for  the  protection  of  interests  which 
Japan  considers  vital  to  herself.  Russia  met  this  surprisingly 
moderate  and  conciliatory  attitude  with  a  policy  of  temporiz- 
ing and  evasion,  delaying  her  replies,  evading  questions,  and 
dragging  in  irrelevant  issues.  She,  meanwhile,  continued  to 
build  fortifications,  to  forward  troops  and  supplies,  to  send  out 
every  available  warship,  in  every  possible  way  to  strengthen 
her  grip  on  the  bone  of  contention  and  to  perfect  her  naval 
and  military  equipment.  Thus,  while  nominally  negotiating 
with  Japan  as  a  friendly  Power,  she  all  the  while  added 
irritation  and  provocation  to  her  insolent  disregard  of  Japan's 
rights  and  claims.  In  the  meantime,  Japan  strictly  observed 
all  proprieties,  and  did  not,  until  the  last  week  of  the  year, 
move  a  single  soldier,  add  a  single  ship  to  her  navy,  or  other- 
wise make  a  single  menacing  special  preparation. 

Actual  crisis  resulted  immediately  from  steps  taken  on 
and  after  December  28.  On  that  date  four  important  impe- 
rial ordinances  were  issued.  Two  of  these  relate  to  the 
superior  organization  of  the  army  and  navy.  They  were 
intended  primarily  (i)  to  secure  efficient  co-operation  between 
military  and  naval  arms  of  the  service,  and  (2)  to  accord  to 
the  chief  of  each  branch  of  the  service  equal  voice  and  equal 
access  to  the  Sovereign  in  offering  advice  and  considering 
plans  of  campaign.  (Hitherto,  the  Chief  of  the  General  Staff 
had  a  right  to  consult  directly  with  the  Emperor  while  the 
Chief  of  the  Naval  Board  had  not  that  right.)  The  other 
two  ordinances  provided:  (i)  for  raising  funds  to  meet  the 
"expenses  required  for  the  maintenance  of  the  armaments," 


PEACE  OR  WAR  341 

and  (2)  for  speedy  completion  of  the  Seoul-Fusan  Railway. 
For  the  first  purpose  the  Government  was  empowered  "  to  raise 
temporary  loans,  to  draw  upon  the  funds  belonging  to  special 
accounts,  and  to  issue  treasury  notes."  The  only  limita- 
tions on  this  power  were:  (i)  that  rates  of  interest  on  obliga- 
tions incurred  should  not  exceed  6  per  cent. ;  and  (2)  that  the 
maximum  period  of  redemption  should  be  for  temporary  loans 
two  years,  and  for  treasury  notes  five  years.  The  "funds 
belonging  to  special  accounts"  aggregated  something  over  a 
hundred  million  yen.*  In  order  to  expedite  construction  of  the 
Seoul-Fusan  Railway,  the  Government  undertook  two  obliga- 
tions: (i)  It  guaranteed  the  principal  and  interest,  not 
exceeding  6  per  cent.,  on  bonds  issued  by  the  company  within 
the  limit  of  ten  million  yen;  (2)  in  view  of  the  fact  that  haste 
^ould  increase  the  cost  of  constructing  the  railway,  the  Govern- 
ment granted  to  the  company  a  cash  subsidy  of  1,750,000  yen, 
with  a  further  contingent  grant  of  450,000  yen.  Loans  were 
authorized  to  raise  the  funds  for  this  subsidy.  In  order  to 
protect  itself  and  to  assure  the  execution  of  its  purposes,  the 
Government  reserved  the  right  to  appoint  three  managing 
directors  and  to  maintain  official  inspection  of  the  works  and 
the  accounts  of  the  company.  In  event  of  military  occupation 
of  Korea  or  of  military  operations  in  Manchuria  by  Japan,  the 
strategic  value  of  this  railway  would  be  immense;  hence  the 
urgency  of  its  construction  at  this  juncture. 

Coincident  with  the  issue  of  the  imperial  ordinances,  most 
extraordinary  activity  in  all  military  and  naval  circles  began. 
It  was  announced  that  the  usual  New_Year  holiday  of  ten  days 
would  be  this  year  contracted  to  a  single  day  for  arsenals, 
dockyards,  and  many  Government  offices.  The  newspapers 
published  reports  that  troops  of  the  large  garrisons  at  Sendai 
and  Kumamoto  were  ordered  to  be  ready  for  a  winter  cam- 
paign, that  active  preparations  were  in  progress  at  all  barracks 

*  A  yen  is  equivalent  to  50  cents  American  money. 


342  PEACE  OR  WAR 

and  naval  stations,  that  large  orders  for  a  new  and  specially 
efficient  kind  of  transport  wagon  were  placed  with  the  Tokio 
Arsenal,  to  be  filled  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  These 
reports  were  credible  and  were  credited,  because  only  one  or 
two  of  the  least  important  journals  in  the  capital  had  pre- 
viously been  guilty  of  jingoism  or  sensationalism,  while  these 
reports  were  published  by  all;  and  especially  because  they 
were  confirmed  by  reports  of  mercantile  establishments  which 
were  selling  unusual  quantities  of  personal  supplies  to  army 
and  navy  men;  and  by  many  evidences  visible  to  observant 
persons.  Meanwhile,  cable  messages  reported  large  purchases 
by  Japan  of  flour  in  the  United  States,  and  of  coal  both  at 
Norfolk,  Va.,  and  in  England,  as  well  as  of  the  two  cruisers 
just  completed  in  Italy  to  the  order  of  Argentina.  It  was  gen- 
erally known  that  the  Government  had  been  in  negotiation 
with  the  large  state-subsidized  mercantile  marine  company, 
Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha,  as  to  terms  for  using  its  ships  as 
transports,  and  had  already  intimated  to  hankers  that  their 
assistance  might  be  needed  to  raise  funds.  Finally,  the  Gov- 
ernment issued,  January  5,  an  order  which  prohibited  journal- 
istic publication  of  any  news  relating  to  the  movements  of 
Japanese  troops  or  warships.  At  the  same  time,  it  was 
rumored  that  20,000  troops  had  moved  out  from  Kumamoto. 
The  extremely  serious  aspect  of  affairs  had,  on  the  preceding 
day  (the  first  business  day  of  the  year)  been  signalized  by  a 
sudden  drop  in  values,  ranging  from  10  to  25  per  cent,  of  the 
last-quoted  market  price.  Subsequently  there  was  a  very 
slight  recovery,  but  values  continued,  under  the  gravity  of  the 
situation,  to  sag  near  the  recent  extraordinary  minimum. 
Under  the  circumstances,  the  laying  of  the  facts  before  the 
foreign  governments  is  here  regarded  as  about  the  last  pacific 
move  on  the  part  of  Japan. 

The  utmost  secrecy  had  successfully  guarded  the  pro- 
posals and  counter-proposals  of  Russo-Japanese  negotiations. 


PEACE  OR  WAR  343 

Even  while  presenting  the  facts  to  foreign  governments,  the 
Japanese  Government  had  refused  to  take  its  own  people  into 
its  confidence;  but  it  is  well  known  that  the  conference 
between  Ministers  and  Elder  Statesmen  on  December  16 
formulated  the  "irreducible'  minimum"  of  Japan's  demands, 
and  that  this  was  the  basis  of  the  last  Japanese  communica- 
tion transmitted  to  Russia  on  December  21.  Persistent  ru- 
mors, emanating  apparently  from  Berlin,  represented  the 
return  by  Russia  of  another  temporizing  reply,  alleging  that 
Russia  would  neither  grant  nor  reject  all  of  the  Japanese 
demands,  but  open  new  subjects  for  negotiation.  But  that 
meant  in  the  end  only  war,  for  Japan  was  in  dead  earnest,  and 
she  was  determined  no  longer  to  let  Russia  temporize  while 
using  the  time  to  strengthen  her  position  against  Japan.  The 
nation  was  a  unit,  and  the  most  conservative  papers  persistently 
voiced  its  sentiment,  viz.,  that,  in  view  of  the  Russian  mode  of 
procedure  and  the  moderation  of  Japan's  demands,  nothing 
remained  to  negotiate.  Hence  it  was  obvious  that  the  Rus- 
sian reply  must  be  reducible  to  a  simple  "yes"  or  "no." 
This  reply  did  not  come,  but  instead  a  temporizing  one.  It  has 
been  believed  in  some  quarters  that  the  Russian  Viceroy  or 
other  high  officials  delayed  the  transmission  of  communica- 
tions from  the  Russian  Government  to  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment, and  in  consequence  the  latter,  on  February  6,  1904, 
broke  off  further  negotiations,  declared  war,  and  startled  the 
world  with  the  unexpected  and  brilliant  attack  upon  Port 
Arthur,  which  resulted  in  a  victory  as  remarkable  as  it  was 
sudden. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

First  Attack  on  Port  Arthur 

Occupation  of  Port  Arthur  by  the  Russians — The  Gibraltar  of  the  East — Beginning 
of  the  War — Sailing  of  Japanese  Fleet — Russians  Fire  First  Shot — Battle  of 
Port  Arthur,  February  8-9,  1904 — Defeat  of  Russian  Fleet — Withdrawal  of 
Japanese — Reports  of  Russian  and  Japanese  Admirals  of  Battle. 

BY  the  occupying  of  Port  Arthur  at  the  end  of  the  Liau- 
Tong  peninsula,  on  December  18,  1897,  and  establish- 
ing there  one  of  the  termini  of  the  great  trans-Siberian 
railway,  Russia  realized  one  of  her  fondest  dreams — the  pos- 
session of  an  open  port  on  the  sea  in  railway  communication 
with  the  rest  of  her  dominion. 

The  Chinese  fortifications  which  had  been  built  by  foreign 
engineers,  were  immediately  re-constructed.  The  town  was 
practically  re-built,  government  buildings  were  erected,  and 
improvements  of  every  kind  devised  and  carried  out.  The 
place  was  made  a  base  of  both  naval  and  military  supplies  and 
stocked  with  great  stores  of  food. 

A  dry-dock  was  constructed,  which  though  small,  yet, 
under  the  skillful  mangement  of  the  Russian  naval  engineers, 
would  be  ample  for  all  ordinary  naval  repairs  required.  In 
short,  so  greatly  did  the  Russians  appreciate  the  strategic 
value  of  this  stronghold  that  they  left  nothing  undone  which 
would  make  it  in  truth  the  "Gibraltar  of  the  East." 

Port  Arthur  was  thus  obviously  destined  to  be  one  of  the 
first  points  of  attack  by  the  Japanese,  and  the  characteristic 
energy  and  impetuosity  of  that  people  led  careful  observers  to 
anticipate  startling  developments  in  that  quarter  at  the  very 
outbreak  of  the  war. 

344 


RUSSIAN    SOLDIERS   BIVOUACKING   IN  A  CHINESE  TEMPLE 

In  sharp  contrast  with  other  nations,  Russia  does  not  appear  to  respect  the  religious  customs  and  feelings  of 
a  conquered  people.  In  her  occupation  of  Manchuria  her  soldiers  have  invaded  and  occupied  the  temples 
which  the  Chinese  hold  as  sacred.  England's  policy  has  been  directly  the  reverse. 


FIRST  ATTACK  ON  PORT  ARTHUR  545 

The  breaking  off  of  all  diplomatic  relations  with  Russia  by 
Japan  on  January  6th,  was  the  final  signal  of  the  beginning  of 
hostilities.  For  weeks  previously  Japan  had  been  landing 
troops  disguised  as  coolies  in  Korea,  and  on  the  yth  she  threw 
off  all  secrecy,  and  openly  seizing  the  Korean  port  of  Masampo, 
began  the  landing  of  an  army  corps.  At  the  same  time  a 
'division  of  Russian  cruisers  sailed  southward  into  the  Yellow 
Sea  from  Port  Arthur.  Meanwhile  a  Japanese  naval  division 
had  sailed  from  Japanese  waters  presumably  for  Chemulpo, 
about  midway  on  the  western  coast  of  Korea.  It  was  confi- 
dently expected  that  these  two  fleets  would  meet  in  battle 
somewhere  in  the  Yellow  Sea.  But  the  Russian  fleet  returned 
to  the  protection  of  the  fortifications  of  Port  Arthur  within 
a  few  hours,  without  striking  a  blow. 

Although  the  first  shot  of  the  war  was  probably  fired  by 
the  Russian  warship  Korietz  at  a  Japanese  vessel  the  day 
before  the  fight  at  Chemulpo,  the  first  general  engagement 
between  the  opposing  forces  occurred  at  Port  Arthur,  begin- 
ning late  at  night  on  the  same  day,  Monday,  February  8,  1904. 
This  resulted  in  a  brilliant  victory  for  the  Japanese  squadron 
sent  ahead  of  the  fleet  and  transports,  which  landed  at  Che- 
mulpo the  day  following,  for  the  purpose  of  blocking  at  Port 
Arthur  any  attempted  Russian  interference  with  the  latter 
movement. 

The  moral  effect  of  this  victory  was  all-important,  as  it 
practically  gave  the  Japanese  control  of  the  sea,  ensured  their 
uninterrupted  transportation  of  troops,  to  the  mainland  and 
the  further  occupation  of  Korea,  which  composed  the  first 
stage  of  the  war,  preliminary  to  combined  land  and  sea  attacks 
on  Russian  positions  in  Manchuria. 

The  attack  of  the  Japanese  fleet  at  Port  Arthur  was  well 
timed.  Many  of  the  Russian  naval  officers  were  ashore,  cele- 
brating with  appropriate  festivities  the  birthday  of  Admiral 
Stark. 


346  FIRST  ATTACK  ON  PORT  ARTHUR 

The  Russian  fleet  outside  of  the  harbor  consisted  cf  the 
battleship  Petropavlovsk,  flagship;  Peresviet,  sub-flagship;  Po~ 
bieda,  Poltava,  Czarevitch,  Retvizan  and  Sevastopol,  and  the 
cruisers  Nov-ik,  Boyarin,  Bayan,  Diana,  Pallada,  Askold  and 
Aurora.  Only  one  of  the  Russian  warships  was  using  search- 
lights, while  in  a  leisurely  fashion  only  three  torpedo  boats  were 
patrolling  the  outskirts  of  the  fleet ;  all  the  other  torpedo  boats 
were  inside  the  basin.  Everything  was  tranquil,  and  the  Rus- 
sians were  not  expecting  the  Japanese  fleet  for  three  or  four 
days.  The  lighthouse  was  already  lighted  and  guiding  lights 
were  burning.  About  eight  o'clock  the  Russian  sailors  chanted 
their  evening  prayers,  and  the  hymn  rolled  out  impressively 
along  the  water. 

The  weather  was  perfect;  it  was  not  cold,  and  the  sky 
was  clear,  with  a  light  southerly  breeze  and  a  hazy  horizon. 
Then  deep  silence  settled  down.  About  half -past  eleven  were 
heard  three  distinct  but  muffled  explosions,  one  after  another. 
Apparently  they  came  from  under  the  water,  for  all  the 
ships  in  the  harbor  vibrated  violently.  Instantly  firing  with 
i2-pounders  and  3-pounders  began.  Searchlights  were  placed, 
but  without  much  method.  The  operations  continued  till  mid- 
night, when  the  firing  had  almost  ceased,  entirely  ceasing  at 
three  in  the  morning.  The  explanation  was  quickly  and  terri- 
bly discovered;  ten  Japanese  torpedo  boats  had  approached 
within  half  a  mile  of  the  Russian  fleet,  showing  lights  and  fun- 
nel signals  just  like  those  of  the  Russians,  and  had  crept  quite 
close  to  the  Russian  ships  before  being  discovered.  Each  of 
the  Japanese  boats  discharged  torpedoes,  three  of  which  took 
effect,  striking  the  battleships'  Czarevitch  and  Retvizan  and 
the  cruiser  Pallada. 

The  instant  after  the  ships  were  struck,  the  whole  scene 
was  illumined  by  the  brilliant  searchlights  of  the  Russian  war- 
ships whose  decks  were  swarming  with  men.  The  Russian  guns 


FIRST  ATTACK  ON  PORT  ARTHUR  347 

instantly  opened  fire  toward  the  sea  and  swept  the  water  with 
a  rain  of  lead. 

The  firing  lasted  only  for  a  short  time;  then  all  was  quiet 
for  a  while,  although  the  searchlights  illumined  the  water  for 
an  hour.  Made  bolder  by  their  success,  the  Japanese  torpedo 
boats  again  approached  the  enemy  whom  they  had  aroused 
and  who  was  watching  for  them.  Again  the  Russian  search- 
lights sought  their  evasive  and  deadly  enemy;  again  tremen- 
dous broadsides  tore  the  waters.  The  Japanese  did  not 
answer  with  a  shot. 

At  2  o  'clock  in  the  morning  the  Czarevitch  and  the  Poltava 
steamed  slowly  in  from  the  outer  roads  and  were  beached 
across  the  entrance  to  the  harbor.  They  were  soon  followed 
by  the  cruiser  Boyarin,  which  was  badly  listed,  and  whose 
steering  apparatus  seemed  to  be  useless.  She,  too,  was 
beached  at  the  harbor's  entrance.  None  of  the  vessels  was 
seriously  damaged  above  the  waterline. 

Notwithstanding  the  continuous .  fire  from  the  ships 
and  forts,  all  the  Japanese  torpedo  boats  escaped.  The 
disabled  Russian  battleships  were  inside  Forts  Huan-ching- 
shan  and  Chi-kwan-shan.  The  cruiser  Boyarin  lay  out- 
side, but  within  range  of  the  forts.  The  sun  rose  very  red, 
disclosing  the  presence  on  the  horizon  of  four  two-funnel 
cruisers,  on  whose  masts  were  afterward  distinguished  the  flag 
of  the  Rising  Sun  of  Japan.  They  came  boldly  within  long 
distance  range,  and  remained  calmly  watching  for  two  hours 
after  daybreak. 

The  Japanese  cruisers  drew  a  fierce  fire  from  the  Rus  ,- 
sian  fleet  and  batteries,  but  for  a  while  the  latter,  crippled \ 
by  the  loss  of  three  vessels,  seemed  disinclined  to  accept 
the  challenge  to  general  action.     The  enemy's  cruisers  then 
rejoined  the  two  divisions  of  the  main  fleet. 

A  strange  apathy  seemed  to  possess  the  Russians.  The 
crew  of  white -faced,  gaping  men  crowded  the  forward  decks  of 


348  FIRST  ATTACK  OX  PORT  ARTHUR 

the  damaged  vessels.  The  cook  of  the  Retvizan  was  seen 
calmly  throwing  out  slops,  and  men  in  the  other  vessels  were 
carefully  washing  the  anchor  chain  while  weighing  the  anchor. 
For  a  long  time  after  the  anchor  was  weighed  no  vessel 
showed  a  disposition  to  chase  the  Japanese  or  to  fire  a 
single  shot,  until,  at  half  past  eight,  the  enemy  finally  left, 
and  were  pursued  by  the  Russian  fleet,  which  proceeded 
toward  Dalny,  inshore  of  the  Japanese.  At  a  quarter  after 
nine  the  Russians  returned  to  their  anchorage,  no  firing  having 
occurred,  and  again  came  silence,  everything  having  passed  on 
with  less  noise  than  an  ordinary  naval  review. 

It  was  about  eleven  o'clock  Tuesday  when  the  Japanese 
ships  reappeared  along  the  horizon.  They  were  in  fine  order,  in 
two  lines  of  battle:  five  battleships,  six  first-class,  and  three 
second-class  cruisers.  The  Russians  had  outside  thirteen  large 
vessels  under  Admiral  Stark,  on  the  flagship  Petropavlovsk, 
and  Rear  Admiral  Prince  Uktomsky,  on  the  flagship  Peres- 
viet,  excluding  the  Pallada,  Czarevitch,  the  flagship  of  Rear 
Admiral  Mollas,  and  the  Retvizan,  which  were  lying  across  the 
inner  harbor  entrance.  It  was  low  water.  At  a  quarter  after 
eleven  came  the  first  flash  from  a  Japanese  vessel.  This 
landed  a  1 2-inch  shell  near  the  torpedo  boats  and  disabled,  a 
battleship. 

Seen  from  the  town  of  Port  Arthur  the  battle  which 
ensued  was  a  magnificent  spectacle.  The  bombardment  of 
the  forts  lasted  till  a  quarter  to  twelve,  the  Japanese 
shooting  with  splendid  precision.  Two  shells  burst  on  the 
summit  of  one  fort  and  numbers  on  the  face  of  the  cliffs 
and  along  the  beach.  All  of  them  were  heavy  shells. 
About  twenty  others  fell  in  the  old  town  and  western  har- 
bor, where  many  steamers  flying  neutral  flags  were  anchored, 
and  after  the  commencement  of  the  action  all  the  people 
fled  towards  the  hill  outside  the  town  for  safety.  The  local 
police  kept  splendid  order;  there  was  no  looting.  The 


FIRST  ATTACK  ON  PORT  ARTHUR  349 

Women  and  children  were  very  brave.  A  little  while  after  the 
first  shell  was  fired  a  big  1 2-inch  one  exploded,  smashing 
the  ofnce  fronts  of  the  Genshengs  Yalu  Concessions  Com- 
pany and  the  Russo-Chinese  Bank.  The  streets  were  then 
entirely  deserted. 

Regiments  from  the  adjoining  barracks  and  camps  came 
pouring  through  the  town  to  take  up  defensive  positions  in  the 
event  of  the  Japanese  landing.  The  Japanese  warships 
steamed  slowly  past  in  an  ellipse  to  westward  and  about 
four  miles  off,  each  vessel  beginning  to  fire  when  opposite  the 
Russian  ships,  which  were  two  miles  off  shore.  The  action 
became  general.  There  was  no  manceuvering ;  simply  heavy 
fast  firing  on  both  sides.  Over  300  shells  were  counted  by  an 
eye-witness  on  land,  few  of  which  reached  their  mark.  Owing 
to  the  length  of  the  range,  most  of  the  shells  burst  on  contact 
with  the  water  or  land.  Some  threw  out  yellow  smoke,  but 
generally  it  was  dense  black  smoke,  temporarily  concealing 
the  ships. 

During  the  action  several  merchant  steamers  outside  the 
roads  moved  their  position,  but  none  was  allowed  to  leave 
anchorage  in  the  harbor.  Firing  ceased  at  noon,  the  Japanese 
ships  withdrawing  southward,  apparently  undamaged. 

•  Afterwards  the  Czarevitch  got  off  at  high  water  and  was 
towed  into  the  large  basin,  where  repairs  were  begun.  The 
Pallada  effected  her  own  repairs  and  rejoined  the  fleet,  leaving 
the  Retvizan  still  aground.  A  sum  of  the  casualties  showed 
twenty-two  killed  and  sixty-four  wounded.  Nearly  half  the 
casualties  occurred  on  the  Pallada  and  Novik.  A  stirring 
episode  was  the  re-entrance  into  the  harbor  of  the  warships 
Czarevitch  and  Novik  after  the  fight.  They  came  in  under 
their  own  steam,  with  bands  playing  and  men  cheering. 

The  Japanese  fleet  sailed  southward.  At  i  o'clock  all  was 
quiet.  The  wounded  were  brought  ashore  and  removed  to  hos- 
pitals. After  Monday  night's  action  many  Japanese  torpedoes 


FIRST  ATTACK  O.V  PORT  ARTHUR 

were  found  floating  in  the  outside  harbor.     They  were  secured 
and  their  mechanism  extracted. 

During  the  afternoon  Alexieff  ordered  all  women,  children 
and  non-combatants  to  leave,  and  the  slow  special  trains  which 
ran  as  often  as  possible  to  Dalny  were  crowded.  The  women 
and  children  were  immediately  removed  in  an  English  steamer. 

The  stampede  of  Port  Arthur  that  day  had  been  almost 
complete.  Hundreds  of  people  rushed  from  the  streets,  and 
shop-owners,  leaving  everything — even  bank  books — behind, 
boarded  the  trains,  which  were  packed  as  with  herrings. 

The  Japanese  fleet  which  had  wrought  such  havoc  was 
commanded  by  Vice-Admiral  Togo,  and  numbered  fifteen  ves- 
sels; The  first  division  was  made  up  of  the  Mikasa,  the  flag- 
ship, and  the  first-class  battleships  Asahi,  Fuji,  Yashima,  Shi- 
kishima  and  Hatsuse,  and  the  despatch  boat  Tatsuma. 

Vice-Admiral  Kamimura  commanded  the  second  division, 
which  was  composed  of  the  flagship  Idzumo,  the  Yakumo,  As- 
ama,  Iwate,  all  armored  cruisers,  and  the  Chitose,  'Kasagi, 
Takasago  and  Yoshino,  fast  protected  cruisers. 

In  the  first  week  of  the  war  the  Czar  lost  the  use  of  three 
battleships,  two  armored  cruisers,  four  protected  or  unarmored 
cruisers,  a  gunboat,  a  torpedo  transport,  and  three  boats  of 
the  Vladivostok  squadron.  Those  not  sunk,  were,  neverthe- 
less, so  badly  damaged  that  they  could  scarcely  be  repaired 
quickly  enough  to  be  of  immediate  use.  The  damage  in 
money  value  amounted  to  a  loss  of  nearly  $20,000,000. 

Vice-Admiral  Togo's  official  report  of  the  attack  of  the 
Japanese  fleet  at  Port  Arthur  was  written  at  sea  February  ic, 
at  a  point  undisclosed  by  the  Navy  Department.  The  report 
briefly  and  modestly  recounts  the  Japanese  victory.  Vice- 
Admiral  Togo  left  the  battle-ground  not  knowing  the  full 
extent  of  the  damage  his  torpedo  shells  had  inflicted,  but  he 
was  evidently  confident  that  the  Russians  had  suffered  heavily 
A  translation  of  the  report  follows: 


FIRST  ATTACK  ON  PORT  ARTHUR  351 

"After  the  combined  fleet  left  Sasebo  on  February  6 

everything  went  as  planned.     At  midnight  February  8  our 

advance  squadron  attacked  the  enemy  at  Port  Arthur.     At 

the  time  the  enemy's  advance  squadron  was  for  the  most  part 

outside  of  Port  Arthur.     Of  the  advance  squadron  at  least  the 

'  battleship  Poltava,  the  protected  cruiser  Askold  and  two  others 

•  appeared  to  have  been  struck  by  our  torpedoes. 

"  On  February  9  at  noon  our  fleet  advanced  in  the  offing 
of  Port  Arthur  Bay,  and  attacked  the  rest  of  the  enemy's  ships 
for  about  forty  minutes.  The  result  of  the  attack  is  not  yet 
known,  but  it  is  believed  considerable  damage  was  inflicted  on 
the  enemy,  and  I  believe  that  they  were  greatly  demoralized. 
They  stopped  fighting  about  i  o'clock,  and  appeared  to  retreat 
into  the  harbor. 

"  In  this  action  the  damage  to  our  fleet  was  very  slight, 
and  our  fighting  strength  is  not  in  the  least  decreased.  The 
number  of  killed  and  wounded  was  fifty-eight.  Of  those,  four 

• 

were  killed  and  fifty-four  wounded. 

"A  report  of  the  engagement  of  the  squadron  at  Che- 
mulpo has  probably  been  sent  to  you  already  directly  by 
Admiral  Uriu. 

"  Our  advance  squadron  bore  the  brunt  of  the  enemy's 
fire,  and  after  the  attack,  for  the  most  part,  rejoined  the 
main  fleet.  The  imperial  princes  on  board  the  ships  are 
unharmed. 

"The  conduct  of  all  our  officers  during  the  action  was 
cool,  not  unlike  that  during  the  ordinary  manoeuvres.  Since 
the  battle  their  spirits  have  been  high,  but  their  conduct  was 
very  calm  during  the  battle.  This  morning,  owing  to  a  heavy 
south  wind,  there  has  been  no  communication  between  the 
ships,  and  no  detailed  report  has  been  received  from  each 
vessel,  so  I  report  merely  the  above  facts. 

(Signed)         "Toco." 


352  FIRST  ATTACK  ON  PORT  ARTHUR 

Admiral  Alexieff,  Russian  Viceroy  of  the  Far  East  to  the 
Czar,  telegraphed  the  following  report  of  the  battle  to  his  sov- 
ereign on  Febmray  10: 

"  A  Japanese  squadron  of  fifteen  battleships  and  cruisers 
to-day  began  to  bombard  Port  Arthur.  The  fortress  replied,  and 
the  squadron  weighed  anchor  in  order  to  take  part  in  the 
contest." 

A  later  telegram  from  the  Viceroy  read  as  follows : 

"After  a  bombardment  lasting  an  hour  the  Japanese 
squadron  ceased  firing  and  steamed  southward.  Our  losses 
were  two  naval  officers  and  fifty-one  men  wounded  and  nine 
men  killed.  One  man  was  killed  and  three  were  wounded  on 
the  coast  batteries  during  the  battle. 

"The  battleship  Poltava  and  the  cruisers  Diana,  Askold 
and  Novik  were  each  damaged  on  the  water  line.  The  damage 
to  the  fort  was  insignificant." 

Another  telegram  from  AlexiefT- referred  to  the  first  tor- 
pedo attack,  and  said: 

"  Supplementing  my  first  telegram,  I  announce  that  none 
of  the  three  damaged  ships  were  sunk.  Their  boilers  and  en- 
gines were  not  damaged.  The  Czarevitch's  steering  gear  and 
the  Retvizan's  pumping  apparatus  below  the  water  line  were 
damaged.  The  Pallada  was  damaged  amidships,  near  her 
engines. 

"  Immediately  after  the  explosion  cruisers  went  to  their 
assistance,  and,  despite  the  darkness,  measures  were  taken  to 
bring  the  damaged  ships  into  the  inner  harbor. 

"Two  seamen  were  killed,  five  were  drowned,  and  eight 
were  wounded. 

"The  enemy's  torpedo  boats  were  received,  at  the  right 
time,  by  a  heavy  fire  from  the  ships. 

"The  unexploded  torpedoes  were  found  after  the  attack. 

(Signed)  "ALEXIEFF." 

In  the  night  attack  of  February  8th,  and  the  bombard- 


FIRST  ATTACK  ON  PORT  ARTHUR.  353 

ment  of  the  subsequent  morniug,  Admiral  Toga  so  crippled  the 
Russian  fleet  at  Port  Arthur  that  the  Japanese  were  secure  in 
transporting  troops  direct  to  Chemulpo  for  the  projected 
invasion  of  Korea.  Their  fleet  was  practically  undiminished  in 
fighting  strength,  while  that  of  the  Czar  had  lost,  at  least  tem- 
porarily, five  of  its  finest  vessels — the  battleships  Czarevitch, 
13,110  tons;  Retvizan^  12,700  tons;  Poltava,  10,960  tons; 
Sevastopol,  10,960  tons ;  and  the  protected  cruisers  Pallada, 
6,630  tons ;  Diana,  6,630  tons ;  Askold,  6,500  tons ;  Boyarin^ 
3,200  tons  ;  Novik,  3,000  tons. 

23 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 
The  Battle  off  Chemulpo 

Situation  of  Port  of  Chemulpo— Sailing  of  Japanese  Fleet  for  Korean  Ports— Report 
of  the  Cruiser  Chiyoda — First  Landing  of  Japanese  Troops  at  Chemulpo — Ulti- 
matum to  the  Russian  Battleships — Beginning  of  the  Fight — Retirement  of 
Both  Forces— Last  Dash  of  the  Russian  Ships — Defeat  of  the  Russians — Rescue 
of  Crews  by  Foreign  Vessels — Landing  of  More  Japanese  Troops — Occupation  of 
Seoul. 

TWENTY-FOUR  miles  from  Seoul,  the  capital  of  Korea, 
is  the  port  of  Chemulpo,  about  midway  on  the  west 
coast  of  Korea.  Its  proximity  to  the  capital  gives  the 
port  an  important  strategic  value  in  the  conquest  of  the  penin- 
sula. Following  the  Japanese  occupation  of  Masampo  on 
Sunday,  February  6th,  and  the  landing  of  a  division  of 
troops  at  that  point,  and  simultaneously  with  the  Japanese 
naval  attack  on  the  Russian  fleet  at  Port  Arthur,  a  Japanese 
fleet  accompanying  troop  transports  entered  the  Yellow  Sea 
with  the  intention  of  landing  forces  at  Kunsan,  considerably 
south  of  Chemulpo. 

But  the  Japanese  Cruiser  Chiyoda,  which  left  Chemulpo 
during  the  night,  met  the  fleet  and  reported  only  two  Russian 
war  ships,  the  Variag  and  the  Korietz,  at  Chemulpo.  Conse- 
quently the  Japanese  fleet  of  twenty-one  ships,  including  seven 
transports,  continued  the  journey. 

At  half-past  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  February  8th 
the  Japanese  warships  Akashi,  Chiyoda,  Takashiho,  Ndniwa 
and  Mikasa,  with  seven  torpedo  boats  and  three  transports, 
entered  Chemulpo  Harbor,  having  on  board  2,500  men.  They 
began  to  land  troops  immediately  in  perfect  order  and  under 
superb  system,  and  by  dawn  of  February  9th  all  the  men  were 

354 


THE  BATTLE  OFF  CHEMULPO  355 

safely  billeted  on  the  Japanese  concession.  The  war  ships 
then  withdrew. 

At  ten  o'clock  the  Japanese  Consul  warned  the  British 
residents  that  Admiral  Uriu,  commanding  the  squadron,  had 
given  the  Russian  senior  officer,  captain  of  the  Variag  and 
commander  of  the  Korietz  until  noon  to  leave  port,  failing 
which  he  would  begin  action.  At  half-past  eleven  in  the  fore- 
noon the  Variag  and  the  Korietz  steamed  away  and  were  met 
by  eight  Japanese  vessels.  The  first  gun  was  fired  at  twenty 
minutes  to  twelve  o'clock.  The  Japanese  scorning  the  Korietz, 
concentrated  their  fire  on  the  Variag.  The  latter  continually 
circled  round,  replying  from  her  sides  alternately,  but  it  was 
apparent  that  her  shooting  was  not  good.  On  every  side  her 
shells  went  wide.  It  was  observable  that  the  Japanese  gradu- 
ally closed,  the  battleship  Mikasa  doing  most  of  the  firing  and 
effecting  damage.  At  a  quarter  after  one  o'clock  P.  M.  they 
ceased  firing,  as  the  Variag  re-entered  the  harbor  and  took  up 
a  position  with  the  Korietz,  among  other  foreign  war  ships. 
One  of  her  boilers  was  injured,  and  she  was  on  fire  astern. 
The  flames  were  extinguished  by  flooding  a  compartment. 

Meanwhile  the  Japanese  fleet  withdrew.  Two  hours  later 
the  Russians  attempted  to  break  through  the  Japanese  fleet, 
which  was  encountered  four  miles  from  the  inner  harbor,  and 
then,  with  bands  playing  the  national  anthem,  the  interna- 
tional fleet  loudly  cheering  the  bravery  and  gallantry  of  the 
Russians,  the  Variag  and  Korietz  faced  the  Japanese  fleet  in 
what  was  certain  death.  There  was  a  terrible  explosion :  the 
Korietz  had  been  blown  up  by  the  Russians,  whose  men  could 
be  seen  in  boats  pulling  for  the  Variag.  An  immense  column 
of  smoke  arose  and  then  cleared  away,  leaving  the  sight  of  the 
Korietz  with  funnels  and  masts  just  above  water.  Japanese 
ashore  were  wildly  cheering. 

At  twenty  minutes  after  five  o'clock  P.  M.,  fire  appeared 
in  the  after  part  of  the  Variag  and  spread  slowly.  The  Japanese 


356  THE  BATTLE  OFF  CHEMULPO 

then  stopped  firing,  and  all  the  spectators,  on  sea  and  land, 
saw  the  Variag  heel  over  surely,  but  barely  perceptibly, 
and  at  five  minutes  after  six  o'clock  sink  with  a  rumble. 
The  Russians  admitted  that  the  Korietz  fired  the  first  shot, 
and  said  that  it  was  accidental.  The  Russians  had  made  a 
brave  fight  against  an  immensely  superior  force,  and  the  en- 
gagement was  watched  by  thousands  of  persons  on  shore,  who 
had  gathered  in  anticipation  of  a  collision. 

The  American  gunboat  Vicksburg,  the  British  cruiser 
Talbot,  the  French  cruiser  Pascal,  and  the  Italian  cruiser  Elba 
also  witnessed  the  engagement  and  saluted  the  victorious  flag. 
The  Korietz  was  utterly  overmatched :  destructive  broadsides 
from  the  Japanese  vessels  raked  her  continuously  until  she 
sank.  Many  of  the  crew  were  killed  by  shells  or  drowned, 
and  all  the  survivors  who  swam  ashore  were  captured  by 
Japanese  soldiers. 

The  Variag^s  commander,  Captain  Vladimir  Behr,  ordered 
his  officers  and  crew  to  jump  overboard  and  save  themselves  if 
they  could,  and  then  blew  up  the  ship,  thus  sacrificing  his  own 
life.  About  200  of  the  crew  of  570  were  killed  or  drowned. 
The  Variag*s  officers  wrere :  Captain  Vladimir  Behr,  Lieuten- 
ant Commander  Ivan  Kraft,  Lieutenant  Volgoborodoff,  Lieut- 
enant Masinoff,  Lieutenant  Vasilieff,  Lieutenant  Ivan  Richter, 
Lieutenant  Vladimir  Posilenkoff,  Lieutenant  F.  Sveredoff, 
Second  Lieutenant  Ivan  Bkinhoff,  Second  Lieutenant  L. 
Kovanko,  Chief  Engineer  Ivan  Lakeoff,  Assistant  Engineer 
Ivan  Soldatoff,  Assistant  Engineer  Vladimir  Rodinn,  Chief 
Surgeon  August  Zoot  and  Assistant  Surgeon  S.  Jute. 

Upon  the  Japanese  side  not  a  man  had  been  lost,  and  the 
fleet  was  practically  undamaged.  The  great  guns  of  the  bat- 
tleships had  poured  a  terrible  and  deadly  fire  upon  the  Variag, 
to  which  her  smaller  weapons  could  only  make  a  gallant,  but 
ineffectual,  reply.  A  twelve-inch  shell  had  entered  her  port- 
quarter,  totally  wrecking  her  cabin,  and  starting  a  fire  in  that 


VICE-ADMIRAL  TOGO 
Commander  of    one  of  the  Japanese  Squadrons 


THE  BATTLE  OFF  CHEMULPO  357 

portion  of  the  ship.  One  of  her  boilers  had  been  pierced  and 
disabled  by  a  ten-inch  shell,  and  the  escaping  steam  scalded  a 
number  of  her  firemen.  The  entire  starboard  side  of  her 
bridge  was  carried  away  by  a  third  projectile,  sweeping  the 
executive  officer  and  quartermaster  at  the  wheel  into  the  sea. 
An  ensign,  who  was  signalling  on  the  bridge  at  the  time,  was 
blown  to  atoms,  and,  after  the  firing,  no  trace  of  him  could 
be  found  except  one  hand  still  tightly  clenching  the  flag. 
Another  large  shell  struck  one  of  her  three-inch  guns,  dis- 
mounting it,  and  killed  the  entire  gur.'s  crew.  At  the  same 
time  another  shell  burst  over  her  main  fighting  top  and  dis- 
abled one  of  the  lookouts.  She  had  received  other  fatal  shots 
in  her  coal  bunkers,  which  caused  her  to  list  badly  to  port,  and 
started  a  fire  which  burned  until  she  sank. 

The  Russians  then  seized  and  scuttled  the  steamship 
Sungari,  which  lay  in  the  harbor  to  prevent  her  capture  and. 
employment  by  the  Japanese. 

This  ended  a  brilliant  defense  on  the  part  of  the  Czar's 
seamen,  and  at  the  same  time  paved  the  way  for  possibly  dan- 
gerous international  complications. 

Some  few  of  the  crew  were  drowned  in  the  attempt  to 
escape,  but  the  men  loyally  aided  their  officers,  of  whom  not  one 
was  thus  lost.  Many  swam,  not  to  the  shore,  but  to  the  foreign 
men-of-war  in  the  harbor,  which  promptly  lowered  boats  and 
went  to  their  rescue. 

The  victorious  Japanese  now  precipitated  an  acute  situa- 
tion by  twice  making  demands  on  the  commanders  of  the  three 
foreign  vessels  that  the  Russian  refugees  be  surrendered  to 
them  as  prisoners  of  war. 

The  captain  of  the  British  cruiser  Talbot,  being  the  senior 
naval  officer  present,  replied  to  the  Japanese  demands  by 
stating  that  he  awaited  instructions  from  his  government 
before  complying,  thus  for  a  while  staving  off  any  strenuous 
action  on  the  part  of  the  Japanese.  Meanwhile,  his  superior, 


358  THE  BATTLE  OFF  CHEMULPO 

Sir  Cyprian  Bridge,  the  British  Admiral  in  command  of  the 
English  squadron  in  the  harbor,  ordered  the  captain  of  the 
Talbot  not  to  deliver  any  of  the  150  wounded  Russians  who 
had  taken  refuge  on  his  vessel,  to  the  Japanese  unless  the 
Russians  so  desired. 

The  destruction  of  the  Variag  is  of  especial  interest 
to  Americans,  because  it  was  built  at  Cramp's  shipyard  at 
Philadelphia.  It  was  completed  in  1900,  and  the  Czar  was 
particularly  well  pleased  with  this  specimen  of  American 
workmanship.  The  Variag  was  designed  to  come  up  to  the 
highest  requirements  of  a  first-class  high-speed  protected 
cruiser,  and  carried  a  large  and  formidable  battery  of  guns 
and  torpedo  tubes.  Her  main  battery  consisted  of  twelve 
six-inch,  twelve  fifty-calibre,  seventy-five  rapid-fire  guns,  and 
six  three-pounder  Hotchkiss  guns.  The  torpedo  battery  num- 
bered one  bow  tube,  one  stern  tube,  and  four  broadside  train- 
ing tubes.  A  protective  deck  of  three-inch  armor  on  the 
slope,  and-one  and  one-half  inches  on  the  flat,  protected  the 
machinery,  magazines,  and  other  vital  parts  of  the  ship.  The 
thirty  boilers  of  the  Niclausse  type,  arranged  in  four  groups, 
had  a  grate  surface  of  1,575  square  feet,  and  a  heating  surface 
of  62,000  square  feet.  The  speed  requirements  called  for  a 
sustained  speed  of  twenty-three  knots  an  hour  for  twelve 
hours,  with  open  stoke  holes.  There  were  accommodations  for 
twenty-one  officers,  nine  petty  officers,  and  a  crew  of  550  men. 

The  Korietz,  the  other  Russian  vessel  destroyed,  was  still 
on  the  Russian  navy  list,  but  she  had  no  value  as  a  fighter. 
She  was  built  in  Stockholm,  Sweden,  and  was  of  steel, 
206  feet  in  length,  35  feet  in  beam,  1,413  tons  displacemen, 
and  1,500  indicated  horse  power.  Her  speed  was  thirteen 
knots,  and  her  armament  consisted  of  two  8-inch  breech 
loaders,  one  6-inch  breech  loader,  four  4.7-inch  quick  firers, 
two  6-pounder  quick  firers,  four  i -pounder  revolving  cannon 
and  two  torpedo  tubes. 


THE  BATTLE  OFF  CHEMULPO  359 

Immediately  following  the  battle  the  landing  .of  more 
Japanese  troops  af  Chemulpo  was  begun,  and  the  march  on 
Seoul  followed.  In  all,  19,000  troops  were  disembarked  at 
this  point,  and  with  the  taking  of  Masampo  the  Japanese  mili- 
tary occupation  of  the  southern  half  of  Korea  was  complete. 
Scores  of  Japanese  transports,  unimpeded  by  the  Russians, 
were  pouring  troops  into  Korea  at  the  different  ports,  and 
Seoul,  the  capital,  was  occupied  in  force. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
Destruction  of  the  Petropavlovsk 

Togo  Mines  the  Channel  of  Port  Arthur — Decoys  the  Russians  from  the  Harbor — 
The  Pursuit — Loss  of  the  Strashni — Silence  Before  the  Tragedy — Petropavlovsk 
Blown  Up  and  Sunk — Alexieff  Reports  the  Disaster  to  the  Czar. 

ON  the  morning  of  Wednesday,  April  13,  1904,  the  Rus- 
sian navy  suffered  the  most  signal  single  catastrophe, 
which  occurred  during  the  early  period  of  the  war.  Ad- 
miral Makaroff,  the  man  to  whom  all  Russia  looked  as  one 
who  would  retrieve  the  first  disasters  and  re-establish  Slavonic 
supremacy  on  the  Eastern  Sea,  went  down  to  his  death  on  his 
flagship  Petropavlovsk,  which  struck  a  Japanese  mine  and  sank 
in  two  minutes  within  full  view  of  the  Japanese- fleet  and  the 
Russian  garrisons.  This  appalling  disaster  threw  the  whole  of 
Russia  into  gloom  and  brought  out  many  expressions  of  ad- 
miration from  neutrals  and  foes  of  the  courageous  sea-fighter 
and  his  sterling  qualities. 

Admiral  Togo,  who  had  made  the  harassing  of  Port 
Arthur  the  subject  of  his  special  study  for  the  preceding  two 
months,  conceived  the  ruse  of  countermining  the  harbor  and 
decoying  the  Russian  ships  over  these  engines  of  destruction. 
He  divided  his  fleet  into  three  divisions  and  steamed  thirty 
miles  away,  leaving  two  divisions  on  the  scene.  During  the 
night  of  April  i2th,  the  mine-laying  transport,  Koryu  Maru, 
escorted  by  two  divisions  of  destroyers,  entered  the  harbor 
mouth  and  let  down  a  number  of  floating  mines  directly  in  the 
open  channel.  Though  the  shore  batteries  opened  a  heavy 
fire  on  her,  she  managed  to  finish  her  work  and  get  away  with- 
out being  hit ;  one  lucky  shot  might  have  exploded  her  cargo 

360 


and  blown  her  to  atoms.  After  this  exploit  she  rejoined  her 
fleet,  and  the  Russians  were  ignorant  of  what  she  had  done. 

Morning  dawned  misty,  but  the  Russians  were  all  alert, 
owing  to  the  firing  of  the  previous  night.  At  8  A.  M.  Admiral 
Makaroff,  seeing  only  a  weak  squadron  menacing  Port  Arthur, 
put  to  sea  with  the  following  force :  The  battleships  Petro- 
pavlovsk,  Poltava  and  Pobieda,  and  the  cruisers  Diana,  Askold 
and  Novik.  These  were  joined  outside  by  the  cruiser  Bay  an, 
which  had  been  engaged  with  a  number  of  Japanese  destroyers 
during  the  night. 

The  cruiser  squadron,  seeing  that  the  Russian  warships 
had  cleared  the  harbor,  steamed  out  to  sea  with  the  Russian 
ships  at  full  steam  following  after  them.  The  Russians  opened 
rapid  fire  at  long  range,  the  Japanese  replying  at  intervals. 
When  the  Japanese  had  drawn  the  Russians  out  some  fifteen 
miles  they  communicated  the  situation  to  Admiral  Togo  by 
wireless  telegraph.  Immediately  on  receipt  of  the  message  he 
signaled  to  the  cruisers  Kasaga  and  Niasin  to  join  the  battle- 
ship squadron  and  went  forward  at  full  steam.  By  a  piece  of 
bad  luck  for  him  the  wind  freshened  at  this  moment,  dispelling 
the  mist,  and  Makaroff,  descrying  the  smoke,  guessed  the  ruse 
and  put  about  at  full  steam  for  Port  Arthur,  all  the  Japanese 
ships  pursuing  him  at  their  utmost  speed. 

The  magnificent  spectacle  which  presented  itself  can  not 
be  better  told  than  in  the  words  of  an  eye-witness  who,  from 
one  of  the  promontories  of  Port  Arthur  harbor,  saw,  not  only 
the  trap  laid  for  Makaroff,  but  also  the  desperate  fight  of  the 
destroyers  which  occurred  early  that  morning. 

At  daybreak  I  made  out  through  the  light  haze  to  the 
southward,  about  five  miles  from  shore,  six  torpedoboats 
strung  out  in  line,  all  firing.  In  the  lead,  and  outstripping  the 
others,  was  a  boat  heading  at  full  speed  directly  for  the  en- 
trance of  the  harbor.  The  last  in  line  was  beclouded  in  steam 
and  lagging.  She  had  evidently  been  hit.  It  was  difficult  to 


362  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  PETROPAVLOVSK 

distinguish  our  boats,  but  finally,  through  my  glasses,  I  saw 
that  the  leader  and  the  laggard  were  Russian,  and  that  the 
four  others  were  Japanese. 

The  torpedoboat  from  which  steam  was  escaping  was  firing 
viciously.  The  four  centre  craft  drew  together,  concentrating 
their  fire  upon  her,  but  the  crippled  destroyer  poured  out  her 
fire  and  was  successfully  keeping  off  her  assailants.  The  sig- 
nal station  flashed  the  news  to  the  men  of  the  batteries  that  the 
vessel  was  the  Strashni. 

The  unequal  combat  was  observed  with  breathless  interest ; 
but  the  net  drew  close  around  the  doomed  boat.  The  four 
Japanese  vessels  formed  a  semi-circle  and  poured  in  a  deadly 
fire.  The  steam  from  the  Strashni  grew  denser,  covering  her 
like  a  white  pall.  Still  she  fought  like  a  desperately  wounded 
animal  brought  to  bay.  Running  straight  for  the  adversary, 
barring  her  way  to  safety,  she  passed  the  Japanese  astern  and 
fired  at  them.  At  this  stage  Vice-Admiral  Makaroff,  who  had 
been  observing  the  'progress  of  the  conflict  through  a  tele- 
scope, signaled  to  the  cruiser  Bayan,  lying  in  the  inner  harbor, 
to  weigh  anchor  and  go  out  to  the  rescue. 

The  Japanese  destroyers  clung  to  their  victim  like  hounds 
in  a  chase.  They  had  become  separated,  but  again  resumed 
their  formation.  Small  jets  of  flame  and  smoke  were  spurting 
from  the  light  rapid-firers,  varied  by  denser  clouds,  as  torpe- 
does were  discharged  against  the  Strashni. 

It  was  the  end.  The  stricken  boat  loosed  a  final  round, 
but  it  was  as  if  a  volley  had  been  fired  over  her  own  grave,  for 
she  disappeared  beneath  the  waves,  only  a  little  cloud  of  steam 
marking  the  place  where  she  went  down. 

By  this  time  the  entire  Russian  squadron  was  in  the  outer 
harbor.  Besides  the  Petropavlovsk,  I  saw  the  battleships  Peres- 
viet,  Poltava,  Pobieda  and  Sevastopol,  the  cruisers  Novik,  Diana 
and  Askold,  and  the  torpedoboats.  The  flags  announcing  the 
Admiral's  approbation  of  the  Bayan  were  hauled  down  and 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  PETROPAVLOVSK  363 

replaced  by  another  signal.  Immediately  the  torpedoboats 
dashed  ahead,  and  the  heavier  ships  began  to  spread  out.  See- 
ing the  flight  of  the  Japanese  cruisers,  the  Petropavlovsk 
opened  fire  with  her  great  guns,  but  the  enemy  was  out  of 
range  and  soon  disappeared.  Our  squadron  continued  the 
chase,  finally  fading  from  view. 

I  waited  anxiously  for  its  reappearance,  and  in  about  an 
hour  it  came  in  sight.  Far  beyond  it,  the  number  of  points 
from  which  smoke  arose  announced  the  presence  of  the 
enemy.  Nearer  and  nearer  came  the  vessels,  and  at  last  I 
made  out  behind  our  squadron  a  fleet  of  fourteen,  of  which 
six  were  battleships  and  the  remainder  armored  and  unarmored 
cruisers.  Unable  to  get  within  effective  range  of  Vice- 
Admiral  Makaroflf's  ships,  the  enemy  stopped  eighteen  versts 
from  shore. 

Our  squadron,  with  the  Petropavlovsk  leading,  arrived  at 
the  entrance  to  the  harbor  and  drew  up  in  line  of  battle.  An- 
other signal  was  floated  from  the  flagship,  and  the  torpedoboat 
at  once  proceeded  through  the  entrance  into  the  inner  harbor. 
Vice- Admiral  Makaroff  was  evidently  unwilling  to  risk  his  vul- 
nerable craft  to  the  heavy  projectiles  of  the  enemy's  armored 
ships.  I  watched  the  Petropavlovsk  closely  as  she  steamed 
toward  Electric  Cliff;  the  frowning  marine  monster,  whose 
guns  were  ever  turning  toward  the  enemy,  was  prepared  to 
send  huge  messengers  of  death  against  him. 

All  was  quiet.  It  was  the  hush  before  a  battle — the  hush 
when  every  nerve  is  strained  to  get  into  impending  danger.  I 
looked  for  the  Japanese  ships,  but  they  were  without  move- 
ment, save  that  caused  by  the  heaving  sea. 

My  glance  returned  to  our  squadron.  The  Petropavlovsk 
was  almost  without  headway,  when  suddenly  I  saw  her  tremble. 
She  seemed  to  rise  out  of  the  water,  a  tremendous  explosion 
rent  the  air,  then  a  second  and  then  a  third.  Fragments  flew 
in  all  directions,  and  wreckage  and  men  were  mixed  up  in  a 


364  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  PETROPAVLOVSK 

terrible  mass.  I  was  hardly  able  to  realize  trie  horror  of  it 
when  the  ship  began  to  list.  In  a  moment  the  sea  seemed  to 
open  and  the  waters  rushed  over  her.  The  Petropavlovsk  had 
disappeared. 

Floating  woodwork  and  the  few  men  struggling  in  the 
water  were  all  that  was  left  to  recall  the  splendid  righting  ma- 
chine which  a  few  hours  before  had  sailed  out  of  the  harbor. 
The  same  shock  experienced  by  the  observers  on  Golden 
Hill  paralyzed  for  a  moment  the  men  on  the  ships,  but  when 
it  passed  torpedoboats  and  small  boats  hastened  to  the  rescue 
of  the  survivors. 

Eager  to  ascertain  what  had  occurred  on  board  the  sunken 
ship,  I  hastened  to  a  landing  where  a  small  remnant  of  the 
gallant  crew  were  being  put  ashore  and  conveyed  to  a  hospital. 
Signalman  Pochkoff,  who  was  slightly  wounded,  was  able  to 
give  me  a  remarkably  clear  statement  of  the  disaster.  He 
said : 

"  We  were  returning  to  the  harbor,  the  Petropavlovsk  lead- 
ing. Some  of  our  cruisers  which  had  remained  in  the  harbor 
came  out  and  steamed  toward  the  enemy,  firing  sixteen  shots 
at  him  with  their  bow  guns.  They  then  retired.  The  enemy 
numbered  fourteen  heavy  ships,  nearly  all  armored,  while  ours 
were  nine.  Against  their  armored  cruisers  we  had  only  the 
Bayan.  I  stood  in  the  wheel-house  on  the  bridge  of  the  Pe- 
tropavlovsk looking  up  the  signal  book.  The  admiral's  last 
signal  had  been  for  the  torpedoboats  to  enter  the  harbor. 

"  The  Petropavlovsk  slowed  speed  and  almost  stood  still. 
Suddenly  the  ship  shook  violently.  I  heard  a  fearful  explo- 
sion, immediately  followed  by  another,  and  then  another. 
They  seemed  to  me  to  be  directly  under  the  bridge.  I  rushed 
to  the  door  of  the  wheel-house,  where  I  met  an  officer,  proba- 
bly a  helmsman.  I  could  pass  him,  and  I  sprang  to  the  win- 
dow and  jumped  out.  The  ship  was  listing,  and  I  feared  that 
every  moment  she  would  turn  over.  On  the  bridge  I  saw  an. 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  PETROPAVLOVSK  365 

officer  weltering  in  blood — it  was  our  Admiral — Makaroff. 
He  lay  face  downward.  I  sprang  to  him,  grasped  him  by  the 
shoulder  and  attempted  to  raise  him. 

"  The  ship  seemed  to  be  falling  somewhere.  From  all 
sides  flew  fragments.  I  heard  the  deafening  screech  and  the 
frightful  din.  The  smoke  rose  in  dense  clouds  and  the  flames 
seemed  to  leap  toward  the  bridge  where  I  was  standing  beside 
the  Admiral.  I  jumped  on  the  rail  and  was  washed  off,  but 
succeeded  in  grabbing  something. 

"  On  our  ship  was  an  old  man  with  a  beautiful  white  beard, 
who  had  been  good  to  our  men.  He  had  a  book  in  his  hand 
and  seemed  to  be  writing,  perhaps  sketching.  He  was  Verest- 
chagin,  the  painter." 

Captain  Crown,  who  went  down  with  the  Petropavlovsk, 
joined  that  ship  on  the  previous  day,  having  succeeded  in  get- 
ting through  from  Shanghai,  where  he  left  his  vessel,  the  gun- 
boat Mandjur.  Captain  Crown  was  a  descendant  of  a  Scotch- 
man who  fought  with  Russia  in  one  of  her  wars  with  Sweden. 

The  text  of  Viceroy  Alexieff 's  report  to  the  Emperor  con- 
cerning the  Petropavlovsk  disaster  and  the  torpedoboat  engag- 
ment  which  preceded  it,  reads  as  follows : 

"  I  respectfully  report  to  your  Majesty  that  on  April  nth 
the  whole  effective  squadron  at  Port  Arthur  sailed  out  six 
miles  to  the  southward  to  manoeuvre,  and  toward  evening  re- 
turned to  port.  On  April  i2th  a  flotilla  of  eight  torpedoboat 
destroyers  went  out  to  inspect  the  islands,  having  received 
orders  to  attack  the  enemy  should  he  be  encountered  in  the 
course  of  the  night. 

"  Owing  to  the  darkness  and  a  heavy  rain  three  of  the 
destroyers  became  separated  from  the  flotilla,  two  of  which  re- 
turned to  Port  Arthur  at  dawn. 

"  The  third,  however,  the  Strashni,  having,  according  to 
the  evidence  of  her  seamen,  encountered  several  Japanese  de- 
stroyers, took  them,  in  the  darkness,  for  Russian  ships,  and 


366  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  PETROPAVLOVSK 

giving  the  signal  of  recognition,  joined  them  at  dawn.  She 
was  recognized  by  the  enemy,  and  there  was  a  fight  at  close 
quarters,  in  which  her  commander,  midshipman,  and  engineer, 
and  most  of  her  crew  were  killed.  Malieff,  her  lieutenant, 
although  wounded,  continued  firing  on  the  enemy. 

"At  dawn  on  April  i3th  the  cruiser  Bay  an  went  out,  pre- 
ceded by  destroyers,  and  hurried  to  the  rescue.  About  six- 
teen miles  from  Port  Arthur  the  Bayan  saw  the  destroyer 
Strashni  engaged  with  four  Japanese  destroyers.  Shortly 
afterward  an  explosion  occurred,  and  the  Strashni  sank.  Driv- 
ing off  the  enemy's  destroyers  by  her  fire,  the  Bayan  ap- 
proached the  scene  of  the  fight,  lowered  her  boats  and  had 
time  to  save  the  remnant  of  the  destroyer's  crew.  Unfortu- 
nately, only  five  men  were  swimming.  Their  lives  were 
saved.  The  cruiser  was  obliged  to  fight  on  her  starboard  side 
with  six  Japanese  cruisers  which  came  up.  Having  picked  up 
her  boats,  the  Bayan  regained  the  harbor,  suffering  no  damage 
or  loss,  although  covered  with  fragments  of  shells. 

"  The  cruiser  Diana  and  five  destroyers  hastened  to  her 
succor,  and  at  the  same  time  the  other  cruisers,  the  battleships 
Petropavlovsk  and  Poltava,  and  some  destroyers  came  out  from 
the  roadstead  and  the  other  battleships  left  the  harbor.  In 
column  formation,  with  the  Bayan  at  the  head  and  the  destroy- 
ers on  the  flank,  Vice- Admiral  Makaroff  proceeded  to  the  scene 
of  the  Strashni 's  fight,  whither  more  Japanese  destroyers  and 
cruisers  were  approaching.  After  a  short  fusillade,  about  fifty 
cable  lengths  distance  (10,000  yards),  the  ships  drew  off. 

"A  squadron  of  nine  Japanese  battleships  appeared  at 
8.40  A.  M.,  and  our  ships  retired  toward  Port  Arthur.  In  the 
roadstead  they  were  rejoined  by  the  battleships  Pobieda,  Peres- 
viet  and  Sevastopol,  which  were  coming  out  through  the  chan- 
nel. The  squadron  was  drawn  up  in  the  following  order : 

"Askold,  Bayan,  Diana,  Petropavlovsk,  Peresviet,  Pobieda, 
Novik,  five  destroyers  and  two  torpedo  cruisers.  They  turned 


DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  PETROPAVLOVSK  367 

toward  the  left,  but  when  approaching  the  mouth  of  the  chan- 
nel the  destroyers  were  signaled  to  return  to  the  harbor  and 
the  cruisers  to  proceed.  Manoeuvering,  with  the  Petropavlovsk 
at  their  head,  the  squadron  turned  to  the  east,  making  toward 
the  enemy  on  the  right. 

At  9.43  A.  M.  an  explosion  occurred  at  the  right  side  of 
the  Petropavlovsk ;  tfcen  a  second  and  more  violent  explosion 
under  her  bridge.  A  thick  column  of  greenish  yellow  smoke 
was  seen  to  rise  from  the  battleship,  her  mast,  funnel,  bridge 
and  turret  were  thrown  up  and  the  battleship  heeled  over  on 
starboard  side.  Her  poop  arose  from  the  water,  showing  her 
screw  working  in  the  air.  The  Petropavlovsk  was  surrounded 
by  flames  and  in  two  minutes  sank,  bow  first. 

"  Some  of  her  crew  escaped.  The  cruiser  Gaydamak^ 
which  was  a  cable-length  away,  lowered  boats  and  succeeded 
in  rescuing  Grand  Duke  Cyril  and  forty-seven  seamen.  The 
destroyers  and  boats  from  the  Poltava  and  Askold  also  picked 
up  some  of  the  Petropavlovsk? s  crew.  Altogether  seven  officers 
and  seventy-three  men  were  saved.  The  Poltava,  which  was 
following  the  Petropavlovsk  two  cable  lengths  astern,  stopped 
her  engines  and  remained  on  the  scene  of  the  disaster. 

"  At  a  signal  from  Rear  Admiral  Uktomsky  the  other 
warships  made  for  the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  manoeuvering 
toward  the  Peresviet  in  line.  A  mine  exploded  under  the  star- 
board side  of  the  Pobieda.  She  listed,  but  proceeded  and  en- 
tered the  harbor  with  all  the  other  ships  astern  of  her.  The 
enemy  remained  in  sight  until  3  o'clock,  and  then  disappeared." 

With  this  defeat  the  Russians  were  no  longer  to  be  feared 
on  the  sea,  and  the  Japanese  began  to  push  the  land  manoeu- 
vres in  the  second  stage  of  the  war,  which  comprised  the  inva- 
sion of  Manchuria  and  the  siege  of  Port  Arthur. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 
Crossing  the  Yalu ;  the  First  Great  Land  Battle 

Two  Great  Armies  Face  to  Face  on  the  Banks  of  the  Yalu— Six  Days'  Heavy  Fight- 
ing Results  in  Retreat  of  the  Russians — The  Japanese  Capture  Russian  Artil- 
lery. 

AS  was  expected  from  the  beginning  of  the  hostilities, 
the  Yalu  River  became  the  scene  of  the  first  conflict 
between  the  contending  land  forces  of  Russia  and  Japan. 
This  river,  as  will  be  seen  by  consulting  a  map,  is  at  the 
Northern  boundary  of  Korea,  separating  it  from  Manchuria. 
The  Russian  army  had  taken  possession  of  Manchuria,  and 
Harbin  was  made  the  headquarters  of  the  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Russian  forces  in  the  Hast,  and,  for  many  months,  the 
concentrating  of  armies  and  supplies  was  pushed  forward  with 
all  possible  haste  at  this  point.  Its  situation  was  well  suited 
for  this  purpose,  as  from  this  point  either  Vladivostok  or  Port 
Arthur,  each  a  sea-port  point  of  great  importance,  could  be 
easily  reached.  It  was  sufficiently  removed  from  the  frontier 
to  insure  freedom  for  military  preparations. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Japanese  had  practical  control  of 
Korea,  and  it  was  their  purpose  to  concentrate  as  large  an 
army  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Yalu  as  could  be  done,  and 
from  that  point  to  push  their  military  operations.  Before  the 
formal  declaration  of  war,  Korea,  through  Japanese  influence 
largely,  had  undertaken  the  building  of  a  railroad,  and  only  a 
few  miles  had  been  completed  from  Fusan,  the  southern  termi- 
nus, but  the  line  had  been  marked  out  to  Seoul,  the  capital  of 
Korea.  Over  this  route  Japan  was  hurrying  her  forces  north- 
ward. Her  transports  had  landed  the  various  divisions  of  the 

368 


CROSSING  THE  YALU  369 

army  at  Chemulpo,  a  sea-port  of  Seoul,  and  at  points  farther 
north.  The  greatest  difficulty  was  to  build  roads,  and  inarch 
the  army  northward,  but  during  the  last  week  in  April,  1904, 
the  Japanese  had  concentrated  a  large  force,  estimated  from 
50,000  to  100,000,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Yalu,  and  began 
active  preparations  for  crossing  this  river  and  driving  the  Rus- 
sians from  their  stronghold. 

The  Yalu  River  is  a  stream  of  some  importance,  navigable 
for  fifty  miles  above  its  mouth.  It  was  necessary  to  construct 
pontoon  bridges  or  convey  the  troops  across  in  boats.  Various 
attempts  to  do  the  latter  were  repulsed  by  the  Russians,  with 
their  artillery,  on  the  north  side.  The  posting  of  a  strong 
artillery  force,  however,  on  the  south  bank  by  the  Japanese  in 
an  advantageous  position  enabled  them  to  protect  their  men 
in  building  a  pontoon  bridge.  Islands  in  the  middle  of  the 
river,  which  facilitated  the  building  of  the  bridges,  wrere  taken 
possession  of  by  the  Japanese  after  a  severe  skirmishing. 

The  six  days'  fighting,  which  ended  in  the  repulse  of  the 
Russians,  began  on  Tuesday,  April  26,  1904.  On  this  day, 
General  Kuroki,  who  commanded  the  Japanese  forces,  began 
the  movement  by  ordering  a  detachment  of  the  Imperial 
Guards  division  to  seize  the  island  of  Kurito  in  the  Yalu, 
above  Wijn,  and  a  detachment  of  the  Second  Division  to 
seize  the  Island  of  Kinteito,  situated  below  Wiju.  The 
detachment  of  the  Imperial  Guards  met  with  some  resist- 
ance, but  it  succeeded  in  clearing  the  enemy  out,  and  occu- 
pied Kurito  Island.  The  Russians  abandoned  the  Island 
of  Kinteito  when  attacked  by  the  detachment  of  the 
Second  Division.  Both  positions  were  gained  with  trifling 
losses. 

During  these  movements  on  the  islands  the  Russians 
opened  fire  on  the  Japanese  with  eight  9^2  -centimetre  guns 
from  a  hill  beyond  Kur-lien-cheng  and  two  Hotchkiss  guns 

which  were  mounted  on  the  bank  of  the  river  at  Khussan. 
24 


370  CROSSING  THE  YALU 

where  the  Russians  seemed  to  have  established  their  head- 
quarters. One  battery  of  Japanese  artillery,  which  had  taken 
a  position  on  a  hill  to  the  east  of  Wiju,  fired  three  volleys  at 
Khussan,  and  at  noon  on  Tuesday  the  Russian  batteries  behind 
Kur-lien-cheng  shelled  Wiju,  wounding  one  Japanese  with 
shrapnel. 

On  Wednesday  the  Russians  resumed  the  bombardment 
of  Wiju,  firing  at  intervals  throughout  the  day.  The  Japanese 
artillery  did  not  respond  to  this  fire.  General  Kuroki  received 
reports  to  the  effect  that  the  Russians  were  fortifying  the 
heights  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Iho  river.  These  new 
defences  extended  from  Kur-lien-cheng  through  the  village  of 
Makao  to  Koshoki,  a  distance  of  three  and  a  quarter  miles. 

The  Russians  resumed  their  bombardment  on  Thursday, 
but  it  was  generally  ineffective.  Subsequently,  General 
Kuroki  ordered  two  companies  of  the  Imperial  Guards  to 
cross  the  Yalu  and  make  a  reconnoisance  along  the  left  bank 
of  the  Iho  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  the  character  of 
the  Russian  fortifications  along  the  heights  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river.  The  Japanese  force  advanced  toward  Khussan, 
and  then  dispatched  a  small  detachment  to  the  village,  where 
a  party  of  Russians  were  encountered.  In  the  engagement 
which  followed  five  Russians  were  killed.  The  Russians 
shelled  the  reconnoitering  -party  from  an  emplacement  in  the 
hills  in  the  southeast  part  of  Yoshoko.  This  fire  was  without 
effect. 

The  Russian  artillery  on  the  hill  behind  Kur-lien-cheng, 
firing  at  a  high  angle,  opened  on  Wiju,  the  Island  of  Kurito, 
and  Seikodo,  to  the  south  of  Wiju,  where  some  Japanese 
batteries  had  taken  position.  This  firing  continued  into 
Thursday  night,  and  General  Kuroki  reported  that  while  it 
was  ineffective,  it  disturbed  his  preparations  for  an  attack. 
The  Russians  resumed  the  shelling  of  Wiju  on  Friday,  but 
the  Japanese  did  not  reply. 


CROSSING  THE  YALU  371 

The  Twelfth  Division  of  the  Japanese  army  was  chosen 
to  make  the  first  crossing  of  the  Yalu.  It  began  its  prepara- 
tions on  Friday  by  driving  the  Russians  from  their  position  on 
the  bank  of  the  river  opposite  Sulkochin,  which  is  eight  miles 
above  Wiju,  and  the  point  selected  for  the  crossing.  This 
division  constructed  a  pontoon  bridge  over  the  river,  and  al 
three  o'clock  Saturday  morning  it  began  crossing.  The  entire 
division  passed  over  the  river  during  the  day,  and  by  six 
o'clock  Saturday  evening  it  was  in  the  position  assigned  to  it 
for  the  battle  of  Sunday.  The  movement  of  the  Twelfth  Jap- 
anese Division  was  covered  by  the  Second  Regiment  of  field 
artillery  and  another  artillery  regiment  of  heavy  guns. 

At  twenty  minutes  to  eleven  o'clock  Saturday  morning 
the  Russian  artillery  posted  to  the  north  and  to  the  east  of 
Kur-lien-cheng,  began  shelling  the  patiols  of  Japanese  infantry 
which  had  been  dispatched  from  Kinteito  Island  to  Chukodai, 
another  island  north  of  Kinteito,  and  under  Kur-lien-cheng. 
The  Japanese  batteries  replied  tp  this  shelling  and  silenced 
the  Russian  fire. 

Later,  eight  Russian  guns,  posted  on  a  hill  to  the  east  of 
Makao,  a  village,  opened  up  on  the  Imperial  Guards.  To  this 
shelling  the  Japanese  artillery  to  the  east  of  Wiju  responded, 
and  the  Russians  ceased  firing.  Then  both  the  Kur-lien-cheng 
and  the  Makao  batteries  re-opened,  and  this  fight  brought  a 
vigorous  response  from  a  chain  of  Japanese  batteries  on  the 
Korean  side  of  the  river.  The  Russian  guns  fired  for  two 
hours  before  they  were  silenced. 

The  Japanese  losses  in  the  bombardment  of  Saturday 
were  two  men  killed  and  five  officers  and  twenty-two  men 
wounded.  A  flotilla  of  gunboats  from  the  squadron  of 
Admiral  Hosoya  participated  in  the  fighting  of  Saturday.  It 
encountered  a  mixed  force  of  Russian  infantry,  cavalry  and 
artillery  on  the  Manchurian  bank  of  the  Yalu,  below  Antung, 
and  after  a  sharp  fight  scattered  them  to  the  hills. 


372  CROSSING  THE  YALU 

A  bridge  across  the  main  stream  of  the  Yalu,  just  above 
Wiju,  was  completed  at  eight  o'clock  Saturday  night,  and  the 
Second  Japanese  Division  and  the  Imperial  Guards  immedi- 
ately began  crossing.  They  advanced  and  occupied  the  hills 
back  of  Khussan,  facing  the  Russian  position  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river.  All  through  Saturday  night  regiment  after 
regiment  of  Japanese  soldiers  poured  across  the  bridge,  and  at 
a  late  hour  Saturday  night  General  Kuroki  telegraphed  to  the 
General  Staff  of  the  army  : 

"  I  will  attack  the  eneiny  on  May  ist,  at  dawn." 

True  to  his  promise,  General  Kuroki  at  daylight  centred 
all  his  artillery  on  the  Russian  position  between  Kur-lien-cheng 
and  Yoshoko.  To  that  fire  the  Russians  made  reply  with  all 
their  batteries. 

At  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning  the  Russian  battery  at 
Yoshoko  was  silenced,  and  half  an  hour  later  General  Kuroki 
ordered  his  line,  stretching  for  four  miles,  to  attack.  The 
Japanese  infantry,  on  the  word  of  command,  charged  across 
the  Iho,  wading  that  stream  breast  deep,  and  began  storming 
the  height  at  8.15  o'clock.  At  9.30  they  had  swept  the  Rus- 
sian line  back  across  the  plateau. 

Although  his  troops  had  been  fighting  for  days  and  de- 
served a  short  rest,  General  Kuroki  had  no  diniculty  in  send- 
ing his  men  after  the  retreating  Russians  from  Kur-lien-cheng 
and  attacking  them  wherever  they  made  a  stand  on  their  own 
chosen  positions  in  the  hills  north  and  south  of  the  Pekin  road, 
which  leads  to  Feng-wang-cheng.  A  serious  engagement  was 
fought  in  the  evening  between  7  and  9  o'clock  at  Hamatan, 
where  the  Iho  river,  a  branch  of  the  Yalu,  makes  its  first  bend 
to  the  west. 

The  Second  and  Twelfth  Divisions  and  the  Imperial 
Guard,  forming  the  First  Army  Corps,  advanced,  notwith- 
standing a  stout  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  Russians,  by 
three  roads,  driving  the  enemy  before  them,  and  at  7  o'clock 


CROSSING  THE  YALU  373 

P.  M.  (Sunday)  occupied  a  Hue  extending  from  Antung  to  Liu- 
shu-shu.  The  Imperial  Guards  surrounded  their  enemy  on 
three  sides,  and  after  a  severe  fight  captured  twenty  guns  with 
their  horses,  carriages  and  ammunition,  and  more  than  twenty 
officers  and  men. 

The  general  reserve  corps  advanced  by  the  Liao-yang 
road.  The  Russian  force  was  composed  of  the  whole  Third 
Division  and  the  Twenty-second  and  Twenty-fourth  Regi- 
ments of  the  Sixth  Infantry  Division  of  sharpshooters  and 
General  Alistchenko's  cavalry  brigade  with  about  forty  guns 
and  eight  machine  guns.  The  Russians  made  a  most  stubborn 
resistance,  but  were  driven  successively  out  of  seven  lines  of 
trenches.  They  retired  in  confusion  and  continued  the  retreat 
toward  Feng-waug-cheng.  Large  quantities  of  small  arms  and 
ammunition  were  captured. 

That  the  Japanese  heavy  field  guns  were  effective  a  Rus- 
sian lieutenant-colonel,  who  was  taken  prisoner,  testified  when 
he  said  that  the  effect  of  the  Japanese  artillery  fire  on  Satur- 
day and  Sunday  was  enormous.  The  same  Russian  prisoner 
declared  that  Lieutenant-General  Sassulitch,  Commander  of 
the  Second  Siberian  Army  Corps,  and  Major- General  Kash- 
talinsky,  Commander  of  the  Third  East  Siberian  Rifle  Brigade, 
were  wounded  by  shells. 

General  Sassulitch  was  in  command  of  the  entire  force  in 
the  Yalu  region,  which  extended  along  a  front  of  over  thirty 
miles,  with  reserve  supports  fifteen  miles  back.  His  instruc- 
tions had  been  to  harass  the  Japanese  in  crossing  the  Yalu,  but 
not  to  bring  on  a  general  engagement.  He  was  directed  to 
withdraw  in  good  order  after  having  accomplished  his  purpose 
of  impeding  the  enemy  in  crossing.  It  developed  that  he  was 
deceived  as  to  the  strength  of  the  Japanese,  and  also  by  their 
flanking  his  position.  This  drew  him  into  a  battle  which 
proved  disastrous  to  the  Russian  army. 

General     Kuropatkin,    the     Commander-in-Chief    of    the 


374  CROSSING  THE  YALU 

Russian  forces  in  the  Far  East,  made  the  following  detailed 
report  of  the  battle  on  the  Yalu. 

"  I  consider  it  my  duty  to  report  the  circumstances  of  the 
grievous  and  yet  glorious  battle  fought  by  the  troops  under 
my  command  with  the  superior  forces  of  the  Japanese,  May  i. 

"  Early  on  the  morning  of  April  3oth,  the  Japanese  began 
to  oppress  our  left  flank,  having  on  the  previous  evening  occu- 
pied the  Khussan  Heights  after  an  attack  in  consequence  of 
which  I  ordered  the  Twenty-second  Regiment,  which  has  occu- 
pied Khussan,  to  retire  across  the  Ai  River  to  our  position  at 
Potietinsky. 

"  On  the  morning  of  the  same  day  an  extraordinarily  pro- 
longed and  violent  bombardment  of  our  whole  position  at 
Kur-lien-cheng  began  from  Wiju.  I  forsaw  that  the  Japanese 
after  the  bombardment,  in  which  over  2,000  projectiles  were 
discharged,  would  take  the  offensive. 

"  I  received  orders  from  Lieutenant-General  Sassulitch  to 
accept  battle  and  to  retain  my  position  at  the  forts  of  Potie- 
tinsky. My  left  flank  was  defended  by  two  battalions  of  the 
Thirty-second  Regiment  and  the  Third  Battery  of  the  Sixth 
Brigade. 

"  The  Japanese  took  the  offensive  at  5  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, dispatching  at  least  one  division  of  infantry,which,  advanc- 
ing in  column,  sustained  enormous  losses,  but  crossed  the  ford 
and  attacked  our  position,  which  was  exposed  to  the  fire  of 
thirty-six  field  guns  and  siege  batteries.  The  Japanese  ad- 
vanced and  occupied  the  position.  Toward  noon  I  ascertained 
that  the  Japanese  had  routed  the  battalion  of  the  Twenty- 
second  Regiment  posted  at  Chingow  and  were  turning  my  left 
flank.  At  i  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  my  left  flank  was  rein- 
forced by  two  battalions  of  the  Eleventh  Regiment  and  a  bat- 
tery commanded  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Moravsky,  which  were 
sent  from  the  reserve  by  General  Sassulitch  with  orders  to 
hold  their  ground  until  the  departure  of  the  Ninth  and  Tenth 

27 


CROSSING  THE  YALU  375 

Regiments  from  Sakhodza.  I  ordered  the  Eleventh  Regiment 
to  occupy  a  commanding  position  in  the  rear  from  which  they 
could  fire  on  the  enemy  from  two  sides.  I  held  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Moravsky's  battery  in  reserve  and  ordered  the  Twelfth 
Regiment,  the  Third  Battery  and  the  quick-firing  guns  to  re- 
tire under  cover  of  the  Eleventh  Regiment.  My  chief -of -staff 
led  the  rear  guard  to  its  position. 

"At  i  o'clock  the  Japanese  approached  so  close  to  the 
position  held  by  the  Eleventh  Regiment  that  the  Third  Bat- 
tery could  not  pass  along  under  the  cross-fire,  and  taking  up  a 
position  a  short  distance  from  the  Japanese,  remained  there 
until  the  end  of  the  fight,  losing  its  commander,  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Moravsky. 

"  A  company  with  quick-firing  guns  was  brought  up  from 
the  rear  guard.  The  officer  commanding  this  force,  seeing 
the  difficult  situation  of  Moravsky's  battery,  took  up  the  posi- 
tion on  his  own  initiative.  He  lost  half  of  his  men  and  all  his 
horses,  and  attempted  to  remove  his  guns  by  hand  to  the 
shelter  of  the  hills  under  the  Japanese  cross-fire.  The  quick- 
firing  pieces  discharged  about  35,000  bullets.  The  Twelfth 
Regiment  cut  its  way  through  and  saved  its  colors. 

"The  second  Battery  of  the  Sixth  Brigade,  having 
attempted  to  rejoin  the  reserves  by  another  route,  could 
not  ascend  the  mountain  slopes  with  only  half  its  horses 
and,  retiring  to  its  original  position,  received  the  Japanese 
attack. 

"The  Eleventh  Regiment,  which  held  its  ground  two 
hours  more  with  heavy  losses,  forced  a  passage  at  the  point  of 
the  bayonet,  and  crossed  the  ravines  with  its  colors.  It  lost 
its  Colonel-commandant,  40  officers,  and  about  200  non- 
commissioned officers  and  men. 

"The  Japanese  losses  must  have  been  enormous.  The 
Russians  retired  in  good  order  on  Feng- Wang-Cheng.  The 
men  of  the  Third  Division  maintained  their  excellent  morale, 


3;6  CROSSING  THE  YALU 

and  over  700  wounded  proceeded  with  their  regiments  to  Feng 
Wang  Cheng." 

The  gloom  which  prevailed  in  St.  Petersburg  was  almost 
completely  dispelled  when  the  people  read  the  story  of  the 
glorious  fight  made  by  Russia's  handful  of  rough  regiments 
against  the  flower  of  the  Mikado's  legions  at  the  Yalu  and  of 
the  utter  defeat— as  St.  Petersburg  viewed  it— of  Vice- Admiral 
Togo's  many  attempts  to  seal  Port  Arthur. 

At  the  river  crossing  the  Japanese  dead  lay  piled  up 
literally  in  heaps.  General  Kuroki's  success  was  purchased  at 
such  a  heavy  cost  that  the  Russians  were  disposed  to  regard 
it  as  a  defeat  rather  than  a  victory  for  him.  The  Russian 
reports  of  the  engagement  showed  that  the  Russians  fought 
with  such  bulldog  tenacity  and  bravery  against  the  overwhelm- 
ing superiority  of  the  enemy  that  the  latter's  nominal  victory 
was  eclipsed  by  the  prowess  of  the  Czar's  soldiers. 

The  report  of  General  Kuropatkin  also  served  to  restore 
General  Sassulitch  to  public  favor.  For  he  had  not  followed  his 
orders  strictly  in  going  into  the  engagement,  as  before  stated. 
Those  who  were  disposed  to  criticise  him,  even  at  the  head- 
quarters of  the  General  Staff,  where  it  was  considered  that  he 
made  a  tactical  blunder,  now  said  that  he  redeemed  himself  by 
his  gallantry  in  action,  and  the  damage  he  inflicted  upon  the 
enemy. 

The  people,  as  they  read  the  accounts  of  the  battle,  were 
especially  impressed  with  the  desperate  bayonet  charge  of  the 
Eleventh  Regiment.  The  mental  picture  of  the  regiment 
advancing  against  the  enemy  with  bands  and  bugles  blaring 
and  the  priest  with  cross  aloft  at  the  head  appealed  to  the 
dramatic  sense  of  the  Russian  population  as  nothing  else  could. 
The  survivors  of  this  heroic  regiment,  which  cut  its  way  out 
after  being  attacked  on  three  sides,  declared  that  the  position 
was  surrounded  by  more  than  a  thousand  dead  Japanese. 


CROSSING  1HE  YALU  377 

Almost  simultaneously  with  the  invasion  of  Manchuria  by 
General  Kuroki  and  his  army,  a  move  of  great  importance  was 
made  by  the  Japanese  forces  in  the  rear  of  Port  Arthur. 
After  eight  attempts  to  bottle  up  the  entrance  of  that  fortress, 
the  last  of  which  succeeded,  Admiral  Togo  held  his  fleet  alert 
off  the  harbor's  mouth  to  prevent  a  sally  by  the  Russian  ships, 
while  the  Japanese  invested  the  stronghold  in  the  rear. 

This  great  movement  in  the  Japanese  campaign  was 
inaugurated  successfully  on  May  fifth  and  sixth,  1904,  when  the 
Second  Army  of  Japan,  commanded  by  General  Oku,  50,000 
strong,  landed  at  three  points  on  the  Liao-tting  Penin- 
sula, namely  at  Pitsewo,  Port  Adams  and  Kinchau,  beating 
back  the  Russian  force  opposing  them,  occupying  the  line  of 
the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway,  and  cutting  the  Russian  tele- 
graph wires,  thus  completely  isolating  Port  Arthur. 

The  Japanese  transports,  sixty  or  more  in  number,  arrived 
off  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  at  a  point  due  west  of  the  Elliott 
group  of  islands,  at  5.30  P.  M.,  on  Thursday,  the  fifth,  escorted 
by  teu  torpedoboats  and  four  torpedoboat  destroyers,  and  by 
two  auxiliary  cruisers.  After  a  reconnoissance  from  Taku-shan 
south  by  naval  detachments,  the  Japanese  commander  con- 
cluded that  a  comparatively  small  force  of  Russian  cavalry 
and  infantry  guarded  the  east  coast. 

He  first  bombarded  the  Russian  batteries  on  the  shore, 
silencing  them,  and  then  dispersed  the  Russian  infantry  and 
cavalry.  Next  a  landing  party  of  sailors  went  ashore.  It 
being  low  tide,  they  plunged  into  the  water,  wading  breast 
deep  for  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  mile,  and  on  reaching  the 
shore,  at  7.30  P.  M.,  they  took  up  a  position  on  a  range  of  hills 
without  firing  a  shot,  and  planted  the  Japanese  flag.  The 
landing  of  troops  followed  immediately,  and  was  continued  all 
night.  The  Japanese  troops  at  once  occupied  the  line  of  the 
Chinese  Eastern  Railway,  and  cut  the  telegraph  wires  to  Port 
Arthur. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

Driving  the  Russians  Northward 

Relief  of  Port  Arthur  Defeated — Junction  of  the  Japanese  — The  Great  Battle  of 
Liao-Yang — Terrible  Losses — Kuropatkin's  Boast — Slaughter  on  the  Shaho — 
Russian  Retreat — Winter  Quarters — The  Malacca  and  Knight  Commander 
Incidents — Birth  of  a  Russian  Heir. 

THERE  were  now  two  all-important  things  to  be  done 
by  the  Japanese.  They  had  to  defeat,  and,  if  possi- 
ble, destroy,  the  main  Russian  army  under  Kuro- 
patkin,  and  they  had  to  maintain  the  command  of  the  sea, 
without  which  all  their  forces  on  the  mainland  would  find 
themselves  entrapped.  To  hold  the  sea,  they  must  put  the 
Russian  ships  in  the  Pacific  out  of  service  before  they  could 
be  reinforced  from  Europe,  and  they  must  have  no  harbor 
of  refuge  open  to  such  reinforcements  if  they  came.  That 
meant  that  Port  Arthur,  Russia's  only  ice-free  naval  base  on 
the  Pacific,  must  be  taken  at  any  cost.  It  was  equally  im- 
portant to  the  Russians  to  hold  that  fortress,  and  two  weeks 
after  the  siege  began  General  Stakelberg  was  sent  down  with 
an  army  corps  in  a  desperate  attempt  at  its  relief.  General 
Oku  enveloped  the  Russians  at  Telissu,  or  Vafangow,  about 
eighty  miles  north  of  Port  Arthur,  on  June  15,  and  they 
barely  escaped  by  a  headlong  flight  with  the  loss  of  fourteen 
guns  and  3,500  men  killed,  wounded,  and  missing.  This 
ended  all  efforts  to  break  the  siege  of  Port  Arthur  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1904.  The  Japanese  continued  to  pour  troops  into 
the  Liaotung  Peninsula.  Part  of  them  stayed  in  front  of  Port 
Arthur  as  a  Third  Army,  under  General  Nogi.  Oku.  with 
378 


DRIVING  THE  RUSSIANS  NORTHWARD  379 

the  Second  Army,  passed  northward  on  the  heels  of  the 
Russians.  The  forces  disembarked  at  Takushan,  now  swelled 
into  a  Fourth  Army,  headed  for  the  north  under  General 
Nodzu.  The  objective  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Fourth  Armies 
was  the  Russian  point  of  concentration  at  Liao-Yang.  New- 
chwang  was  now  untenable,  and  the  Russians  abandoned  the 
town,  and  with  it  their  last  opening  to  the  Manchurian  coast. 
The  supreme  command  of  the  Japanese  forces  was  intrusted 
to  Field  Marshal  Marquis  Oyama,  who  had  commanded  ten 
years  before  in  the  war  against  China. 

The  armies  of  Kuroki  and  Nodzu  were  separated  from 
the  valley  through  which  the  Russian  railroad  ran  by  a  range 
of  mountains,  pierced  by  occasional  passes.  The  First  Army 
had  to  force  the  formidable  Motien  Pass:  the  Fourth  Army 
had  to  take  the  Pass  of  Fengshui.  The  work  was  intrepidly 
done  in  both  cases.  The  Second  Army  moved  north  up  the 
railroad.  By  the  end  of  August  the  converging  movement 
was  complete,  and  the  three  armies,  consisting  of  240,000 
men,  were  in  touch  in  sight  of  Liao-Yang.  The  First  Army, 
commanded  by  Kuroki,  on  the  right,  the  Fourth,  under  Oku, 
in  the  centre,  and  Nodzu  with  the  Second  on  the  left,  formed 
a  horseshoe,  with  its  ends  resting  on  the  Taitse  River.  The 
Russian  army  formed  an  inner  horseshoe  in  a  similar  position. 
Inside  of  that  again  were  the  square  walls  of  the  strongly 
fortified  town  of  Liao-Yang.  Kuropatkin  had  2 00,000 'to 
210,000  men.  Stakelberg  and  Meyendorff  held  the  right 
of  his  line,  Mistchenko  and  Rennenkampf  with  their  Cossacks 
were  intrenched  on  the  left,  while  the  commander  himself 
took  charge  of  the  centre.  Since  May  i  he  had  been  fortifying 
the  town,  the  hills  and  the  plain  and,  with  only  a  slightly 
inferior  force,  awaited  the  Japanese  on  ground  of  his  own 
choosing. 

On  August  24,  General  Kuroki  attacked  Anping  with 
his  left  and  centre,  reserving  his  right  flank  for  another  move- 


38o  DRIVING  THE  RUSSIANS  NORTHWARD 

merit  not  then  apparent.  At  the  same  time,  General  Nodzu 
attacked  the  Russian  right  flank,  forcing  it  to  retire  from 
Anping  to  Liao-Yang,  closely  followed  by  his  and  General 
Kuroki's  forces.  Meanwhile,  the  Japanese  centre,  under 
General  Oku,  in  a  series  of  brilliant,  reckless  infantry  charges, 
was  trying  to  carry  the  Russian  centre.  Here  it  was  that 
the  greatest  loss  of  life  took  place.  For  two  days,  Oku  hurled 
his  splendid  infantry  against  the  Russian  breastworks,  forti- 
fied with  every  device  that  time  and  ingenuity  could  provide, 
but,  despite  their  valor  the  desperate  resistance  of  the  Rus- 
sians was  too  much  for  the  bayonet  charges  of  Oku's  men. 
So  fierce  were  the  Japanese  attacks,  however,  that  even 
behind  their  breastworks,  the  Russians  suffered  even  more 
severely  than  their  assailants.  Meanwhile,  a  tremendous 
artillery  duel  was  in  progress,  the  six  hundred  Russians  guns 
replying  to  the  seven  hundred  or  eight  hundred  Japanese 
cannon  incessantly  for  three  days,  ending  August  29. 

After  a  week  of  fighting  all  along  the  line  Kuroki  found 
a  secure  spot  ten  miles  up  the  river,  and  his  missing  right 
flank  crossed  it  by  a  pontoon  bridge  on  the  last  day  of  August. 
As  soon  as  Kuropatkin  discovered  that  his  flank  was  about 
to  be  turned  he  tried  to  crush  the  detachment  at  one  blow, 
but  by  desperate  fighting  for  three  days  Kuroki  managed  to 
land  the  rest  of  his  force  across  the  river  and  compelled  the 
Russians  to  retreat.  This  Kuropatkin  effected  in  a  masterly 
manner,  accelerated  by  Kuroki,  who  attacked  him  again  at 
the  Yen-Tai  coal  mines,  and,  fortified  in  Mukden,  the  ancient 
capital  of  Manchuria,  counted  his  dead  and  repaired  his 
ranks.  In  twelve  days  of  fighting  the  Russians  had  lost  about 
20,000  men,  killed  and  wounded;  the  Japanese  nearly  18,000. 
Although  to  the  latter  belonged  the  victory,  they  had  not 
succeeded  in  annihilating  Kuropatkin,  as  had  been  their 
expectation.  The  strong  city  of  Liao-Yang,  however,  fell 
into  their  hands  and  provided  them  with  a  vast  quantity  of 


L 


stores  which  the  Russians,  in  their  hasty  evacuation,  had 
not  beeji  able  entirely  to  destroy. 

Kuropatkin  waited  a  month  and  then  issued  a  procla- 
mation to  his  army  on  October  2,  of  which  the  following  is 
part: 

"Heretofore  the  enemy,  in  operating,  has  relied  on  his 
great  forces,  and,  disposing  his  armies  so  as  to  surround  us, 
has  chosen,  as  he  deemed  fit,  his  time  for  attack,  but  now 
the  moment  to  go  to  meet  the  enemy,  for  which  the  whole 
army  has  been  longing,  has  come,  and  the  time  has  arrived 
for  us  to  compel  the  Japanese  to  do  our  will,  for  the  forces 
of  the  Manchurian  army  are  strong  enough  to  begin  a  forward 
movement." 

Consistently  enough  the  Russian  advance  began,  several 
days  later,  and,  finding  the  Japanese  unprepared,  drove  in 
the  outposts  of  their  army,  which  was  spread  over  a  front  of 
about  fifty-two  miles.  Oyama  quickly  drew  together  his 
line  of  battle  and  sent  a  column  eastward  to  flank  the  enemy 
when  the  general  engagement  was  in  progress.  The  battle 
of  the  Shakhe  or  Sha-ho  was  the  result,  named  from  the  river 
which  runs  east  and  west  across  the  scene  of  conflict.  Mean- 
while, General  Kuropatkin  had  pushed  the  bulk  of  his  army 
which,  it  was  reported,  had  been  increased  to  280,000  men, 
across  the  Hun  River  and  along  the  main  road  toward  the 
railway  station  and  the  Yen-Tai  coal  mines.  Here  he  was 
faced  by  General  Oku,  who  was  guarding  the  railway  with 
the  Japanese  left,  and  General  Nodzu,  who  was  guarding  the 
mines  and  the  main  road  with  the  Japanese  centre.  The 
Russian  general's  chief  effort  was  to  break  through  the  Japan- 
ese right  flank,  commanded  by  General  Kuroki,  and  in  the 
battle  which  followed,  and  which  raged  for  eleven  days,  Gen- 
eral Kuropatkin  constantly  tried  to  pierce  the  Japanese  lines 
by  breaking  through  between  General  Kuroki  and  General 
Nodzu.  On  their  side,  the  Japanese  commanders  played 


382 


DRIVING  THE  RUSSIANS  NORTHWARD 


their  favorite  flanking  game,  the  centre  army  bearing  the 
Russian  attack,  while  Oku,  on  the  left,  and  Kuroki,  on  the 
right,  endeavored  to  crumple  up  the  Russian  wings.  In 
fact,  General  Kuroki 's  forces  had  been  lost  to  view  for  several 
days,  having  made  such  a  wide  detour  to  the  eastward  in  their 
flunking  movement. 

This  battle,   or  series  of  battles,   was  distinguished  by 


MUKDEN    AND    THE    BATTLEFIELD    OF    THE    SHA-HO. 

.-heavier  fighting  than  that  at  Liao-Yang,  and  the  losses  were 
'  appalling.  Nothing  equal  to  it  had  yet  occurred  in  the  war, 
in  consecutive  fighting,  though  the  subsequent  carnage  before 
Port  Arthur  mounted  high  in  the  aggregate.  The  Russians 
lost  nearly  68,000  and  the  Japanese  about  16,000.  In  the 
end  the  Russians  were  driven  back  and  went  into  winter 
quarters  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Hun  river,  and  the  Japanese 


DRIVING  THE  RUSSIANS  NORTHWARD  383 

settled  down  on  the  opposite  side,  nesting  themselves  in  caves 
and  dugouts,  which  they  fortified  against  the  cold  and  against 
their  enemy. 

Russia  had,  meanwhile,  managed  to  stir  up  enmity  in 
Europe.  Previous  to  the  blunder  of  her  Baltic  squadron  in 
firing  on  a  British  fishing  fleet,  which  is  elsewhere  noted,  two 
of  her  cruisers  sailed  through  the  Dardanelles  in  July  and 
made  a  prize  of  the  British  liner  Malacca.  The  Petersburg 
and  the  Smolensk  were  the  offenders  and  their  principal 
victim,  a  great  Peninsular  and  Oriental  steamer,  was  over- 
hauled in  the  Red  Sea  and  sent  north  tjider  a  prize  crew  to 
find  a  Russian  port.  The  English  press  demanded  peremp- 
tory steps  and  the  vessel  was  held  at  Port  Said  until  a  protest 
from  London  to  St.  Petersburg  set  the  matter  right. 

Hardly  was  this  excitement  allayed,  however,  than  the 
Vladivostok  squadron,  under  the  enterprising  Jessen,  seized 
and  sank  the  British  ship  Knight  Commander,  bound  for  Japan 
with  railroad  materials.  The  English  again  raged  and  de- 
manded reparation,  but  the  Russian  prize  court  confirmed 
the  judgment  of  Admiral  Jessen  in  sinking  the  ship,  because 
of  his  inability  to  bring  her  to  port. 

These  incidents  did  not  better  the  foreign  attitude  to- 
ward Russia,  and  internal  feeling  was  naturally  affected  by 
the  reverses  and  blunders  of  the  Government.  The  Minister 
of  the  Interior,  Von  Plehve,  was  assassinated,  and  a  student 
killed  Bobrikoff,  the  Governor  of  Finland.  It  was  most 
opportune,  therefore,  that  on  August  12,  an  heir  was  born 
to  the  throne.  Alexis  Nikolai vitch,  who  will  reign  as  Alexis 
II,  reconciled  the  people  to  the  "English  Czarina,"  and 
diverted  for  a  time  to  universal  rejoicing  the  minds  of  a  people 
whom  military  reverses  abroad  and  social  unrest  at  home  had 
made  dangerous  almost  to  the  point  of  revolution. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

The  Fall  of  Port  Arthur 

Its  Significance  and  Influence — The  Terrible  Losses  on  Both  Sides — First  Days  oi 
the  Investment — Besieged  by  Sea  and  Land — Storming  Kinchau  and  Nanshan 
Hill — Tightening  the  Lines — Wolf  Hills,  Last  Outer  Forts,  Taken — Witteoft's 
Sally  Defeated — Stoessel  Refuses  to  Surrender — Japanese  Storm  203-Metef 
Hill — Rihlung  Fort  Taken — Surrender. 

THE  fall  of  Port  Arthur  after  eleven  months  of  the  most 
ferocious  siege  in  recorded  history  was  accomplished 
by  the  Japanese  army  under  General  Nogi,  on  the 
evening  of  January  ist,  1905.    Tens  of  thousands  of  men  were 
sacrificed  by  the  dauntless  besiegers  in  their  irresistible  block- 
ade, and  a  mere  handful  remained  uninjured  of  the  brave 
garrison  which  defended  the  supposedly  impregnable  fortress 
against  the  fury  of  their  enemy. 

For  just  three  months  after  the  first  blow  of  the  war  was 
struck  at  Port  Arthur  on  February  8,  the  city  maintained 
communication  with  the  outside  world  by  railroad  and  tele- 
graph, but  on  May  7  the  Japanese  cut  these  communications, 
completed  a  cordon  from  shore  to  shore  on  the  Liaotung 
Peninsula  and  shut  up  the  heroic  General  Stoessel  and  his 
devoted  garrison  in  their  stronghold.  From  that  day  until 
its  fall  Port  Arthur  was  in  a  state  of  siege  and  the  fighting 
was  almost  incessant.  The  garrison  was  approximately 
40,000  effectives,  some  troops  having  been  smuggled  in  during 
the  lax  days  of  the  blockade ;  while  the  attacking  force  varied 
from  30,000  to  100,000.  Its  size  was  repeatedly  reduced  and 
increased;  in  various  futile  assaults  upon  the  fortress  it  lost 
approximately  75,000  men  killed  and  wounded,  and  in  the 
25  385 


386  THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR 

autumn  months  stiffered  a  loss  of  16,000  men  by  beri-beri,  a 
scourge  that  at  one  time  threatened  to  annihilate  the  besieg- 
ing army.  At  times  General  Nogi  was  called  on  to  detach 
large  bodies  of  troops  to  go  north  and  join  in  the  fighting 
against  General  Kuropatkin  and  had  to  wait  for  months  for 
reinforcements  to  fill  his  depleted  ranks. 

Roughly  speaking,  he  made  a  general  assault  upon  the 
fortress,  designed  to  force  its  capitulation,  about  once  a 
month.  All  these  assaults  failed,  the  Japanese  being  hurled 
back  from  the  defenses  with  appalling  losses,  while  the  Rus- 
sians fought,  behind  their  splendid  fortifications,  with  com- 
parative immunity.  After  the  early  days  of  August  the  siege 
operations  were  marked  by  extreme  ferocity  displayed  by 
soldiers  on  both  sides.  The  Russians  became  convinced  that 
surrender  would  be  followed  by  a  massacre,  and  the  Japanese, 
after  protesting  in  vain  against  violations  of  the  Red  Cross 
and  white  flags,  resolved  neither  to  give  nor  ask  quarter. 
Russian  outposts,  surprised  by  Japanese  scouts,  fought  with 
their  fists  until  beaten  to  death;  non-combatants  sent  out 
by  either  side  to  collect  the  dead  and  wounded  were  shot 
down  without  compunction;  neither  side  dared  try  to  succor 
the  wounded,  who  lay  under  the  fortifications,  and  thousands 
of  injured  men  perished  of  exhaustion  and  thirst  in  full  view 
of  both  armies. 

Isolated  instances  of  heroism  that  would  have  set  the 
world  ringing  under  less  overwhelming  circumstances  were 
dwarfed  by  the  generally  magnificent  conduct  of  both  forces. 
By  sea  there  were  torpedo  boat  dashes  of  superb  recklessness, 
and  big  ships  plowed  through  mine  fields  with  heroic  disre- 
gard to  give  battle  or  in  wild  efforts  to  escape.  By  land  the 
Japanese  hurled  themselves  against  positions  declared  to  be 
impregnable.  They  faced  and  scaled  rocky  heights  crowned 
with  batteries  and  crowded  with  defenders,  suffering  losses 
that  would  have  appalled  any  European  army. 


THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR 


387 


The  whole  story  is  one  of  undaunted  courage  and  sub- 
lime bravery.  The  losses  were  appalling:  in  some  engage- 
ments leading  up  to  the  capture  of  2 03 -Metre  Hill  the  attack- 
ing force  lost  as  high  as  40  per  cent,  of  the  force  engaged, 
while  the  garrison's  losses  were  frightful 

The  defense  of  the  position  which  fell  to  her  as  a  heritage 
after  the  Chinese-Japanese  war  cost  Russia  practically  her 
entire  fleet  in  those  waters.  Her  ships  lay  from  Port  Arthur's 
inner  basin  to  Chemulpo,  in  Korea,  and  along  the  Shantung 
Peninsula,  battered  hulks  of  once  proud  vessels,  or,  ignomini- 
ously  dismantled,  interned  in  neutral  Chinese  harbors.  Save 
the  three  or  four  cruisers  and  some  lesser  craft  in  the  ice- 
bound refuge  of  Vladivostok,  not  a  war  ship  remained  to  fly 
the  Russian  cross  in  the  waters  of  the  Northern  Orient. 

With  the  capture  of  the  naval  base  the  Japanese  com- 
pleted the  first  part  of  their  campaign,  and  were  ready  to 
push  the  war  into  Manchuria  with  concentrated  vigor.  The 
whole  military  situation  became  simplified  at  once:  it  was 
improbable  that  aggressive  operations  would  be  carried  on 
in  the  extremity  of  a  Manchurian  winter,  while,  in  the  early 
spring,  Nogi's  army  of  100,000  tested  veterans,  released  from 
Port  Arthur,  could  be  joined  to  the  forces  of  Oyama  and 
Kuroki  and  thrown  against  the  Russian  lines  in  the  north. 
There  was,  therefore,  an  advantage  gained  to  the  Mikado's 
men  by  their  costly  success,  in  addition  to  the  intrinsic  strat- 
egic value  of  the  captured  position. 

The  story  of  the  siege  proper  dates  from  May  5th  and  6th, 
1904,  when  the  Japanese  landed  an  army  at  Pitsewo  and 
Kinchau,  at  each  side  of  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Liaotung 
Peninsula,  as  related  in  a  preceding  chapter.  The  first  days 
of  the  Japanese  presence  on  the  peninsula  were  devoted  to 
bringing  up  supplies  and  preparing  for  the  advance  south- 
ward. The  Russians,  realizing  the  inevitability  of  a  siege  of 
the  fortress,  prepared  to  concentrate  the  lines  of  defense,  and 


388  THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR 

on  May  12  blew  up  and  burned  the  magnificent  piers,  docks, 
warehouses,  etc.,  at  the  new  commercial  city  of  Dalny,  about 
thirty  miles  north  by  east  of  Port  Arthur.  The  very  next 
day  Japanese  torpedo  boats  entered  the  harbor  of  Dalny  to 
prepare  for  the  landing  of  troops  there.  In  the  necessary 


FORTIFICATIONS    OF    PORT   ARTHUR  AND   THE    SIEGE    LINES. 

work  of  removing  the  mines  placed  by  the  Russians  one 
Japanese  torpedo  boat  was  blown  up  with  all  on  board. 

The  week  following  this  operation  ended  with  the  occu- 
pation of  Kinchau  and  the  great  battle  of  Nanshan  Hill. 
These  two  points  commanded  the  land  approaches  to  Port 
Arthur,  and  the    Japanese,   commanded    by  General  Nogi 
carried  them  only  after  most  desperate  conflicts  that  raged 


THE  JAPANESE  INFANTRY  HALTING  FOR  RATIONS 

The  Japanese  soldiers  have  hot  rice  in  the  morning.     They  then  fill  little  oblong 
reed  boxes  with  rice,  which  is  eaten  cold  during  the  midday  halt. 


THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR  389 

throughout  May  25  and  26.  The  Japanese  losses  in  these 
two  battles,  which  count  as  one  in  the  war's  history,  were 
nearly  4,000,  the  heaviest  they  had  sustained  up  to  that  time> 
and  the  valor  displayed  by  the  Japanese  in  assaulting  the 
Russian  positions  has  seldom  been  equaled. 

The  winning  of  these  places  completed  the  preliminary 
investment  of  Port  Arthur,  as  with  the  ships  of  Admiral  Togo 
supreme  on  the  seas,  the  Japanese  were  in  complete  command 
of  every  approach  to  the  Kwangtung  Peninsula,  and  the  prob- 
lem then  resolved  itself  into  one  of  tightening  their  lines  until 
they  should  be  drawn  close  about  the  fortress  itself. 

This  proved,  however,  a  long,  tedious  and  expensive 
operation,  for  the  Kwangtung  Peninsula  was  found  to  be  little 
more  than  a  mass  of  forts,  all  connected,  and  each  one  neces- 
sitating a  separate  assault  before  it  could  be  occupied  and  the 
advance  continued.  To  the  performance  of  the  work  required 
General  Nogi's  army  proved  insufficient,  and  reinforcements 
were  poured  in  ever-increasing  numbers  upon  the  shores  of 
the  Liaotung  Peninsula,  until  more  than  150,000  men  had 
been  sent  to  prosecute  the  great  work  on  which  Japan's  most 
ambitious  efforts  were  centered.  In  these  plans  the  Japanese 
followed  the  general  lines  pursued  by  them  in  their  attack 
upon  the  city  when  it  was  held  by  the  Chinese  in  1894.  They 
advanced  from  the  north  and  east,  following  the  route  of  the 
railroad  and  the  wagonway,  the  former  running  up  the  penin- 
sula toward  Mukden,  and  the  latter  almost  paralleling  it, 
with  a  branch  toward  Dalny  and  Talienwan. 

This  great  general  assault  occurred  on  July  3-4,  and  was 
characterized  by  the  greatest  valor  on  each  side.  The  Japa- 
nese, with  their  frenzied  ardor,  assaulted  the  Russian  forts 
by  day  and  by  night,  sweeping  forward  in  the  face  of  a  hurri- 
cane of  fire  from  cannon  and  small  arms,  all  well  protected 
by  entrenchments.  They  stopped  only  when  the  Russians 
exploded  mines  buried  in  the  slopes  of  the  hills  and  wrought 


390  THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR 

such  havoc  dS  no  army  could  endure.  Both  the  Japanese 
and  Russian  losses  in  these  engagements  were  heavy,  but  as 
the  Russians  fought  from  behind  earthworks  and  had  all  the 
advantage  of  position,  it  is  supposed  that  the  Japanese  casual- 
ties were  far  greater  than  those  of  the  defenders. 

From  the  abandonment  of  this  first  attempt  to  carry  the 
Russian  outworks  by  storm  until  July  28  the  fighting  in  front 
of  Port  Arthur  was  of  a  desultory  character,  no  general  en- 
gagement occurring  during  that  period.  The  Japanese  were 
ceaselessly  active,  their  artillery  pouring  into  the  Russian 
lines  a  fire  of  terrible  intensity.  More  than  300  Japanese 
cannon  were  engaged  in  this  long-continued  attempt  to 
silence  the  Russian  batteries,  but  their  efforts  were  only  partly 
successful.  During  the  last  days  of  the  period  the  Japanese 
brought  up  their  heaviest  siege  guns,  located  them  in  the  most 
advantageous  positions,  tightened  their  lines  and  prepared 
for  a  second  assault. 

The  firing  of  heavy  guns  ceased  neither  by  night  nor  by 
day,  and  the  rain  of  shells  upon  the  Russian  defenses,  and 
even  in  the  city  of  Port  Arthur,  was  incessant  and  most 
terrific.  The  flight  of  the  shells  at  night  could  be  seen  by 
ships  far  out  at  sea,  and  passers  by  the  peninsula  reported 
that  the  spectacle  of  the  night  bombardments  was  an  awre- 
inspiring  one. 

On  July  28  the  Japanese  made  their  second  assault  upon' 
the  Russian  outer  line  of  defenses.  The  artillery  redoubled 
its  fire  to  prepare  the  way  for  one  final  superb  charge,  and  even 
before  the  Japanese  infantrymen  started  across  the  numerous 
valleys  of  death  that  lay  between  their  lines  and  the  Russian 
forts  the  latter  had  been  battered  almost  into  helplessness  by 
the  wondrously  accurate  fire  of  the  Japanese  gunners.  This 
assault  was  successful  in  the  extreme,  and  the  more  important 
of  the  Russian  outworks  wrere  possessed  by  the  Japanese,  but 
only  after  fearful  loss  of  life  and  the  wounding  of  thousands. 


THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR  391 

Other  Russian  embarrassments  followed.  Two  days 
later  a  Russian  torpedo  boat  sunk  the  Indo-China  Navigation 
Company's  steamship  Hipsang  as  it  was  passing  Pigeon  Bay. 
The  ship  was  a  neutral,  and  its  sinking  was  an  act  of  pure 
wantonness.  On  the  same  day,  July  30,  the  Russian  torpedo 
boat  destroyer  Lieutenant  Burukoff  struck  a  mine  and  went 
to  the  bottom.  That  day's  greatest  happening,  however, 
was  at  Wolf  Hills,  a  chain  of  low  mountains  to  the  north  of 
Port  Arthur,  possession  of  which  commanded  all  the  ap- 
proaches to  the  inner  defenses  of  the  fortress.  This  advan- 
tageous position  remained  in  possession  of  the  Russians  after 
the  storming  of  their  outer  works  two  days  before,  but  on 
July  30  the  Japanese  assaulted  and  captured  all  the  Russian 
forts  on  this  chain  of  mountains,  and  on  August  5  General 
Nogi  reported  to  Tokio  that  with  Wolf  Hills  in  his  possession 
the  Japanese  investment  of  Port  Arthur  was  complete. 

By  August  7  the  Japanese  had  pushed  forward  their  lines 
until  their  advance  rested  within  2,750  yards  of  the  Russian 
inner  defenses,  and  on  August  8  a  large  body  of  Japanese 
troops  was  landed  in  Louisa  Bay,  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
Kwangtung  Peninsula,  the  object  being  to  send  these  troops 
against  Port  Arthur  from  the  west,  simultaneously  with  Gen- 
eral Nogi's  main  advance  from  the  north  and  east. 

On  August  10  Admiral  Witteoft,  who  succeeded  Admiral 
Makaroff  in  command  of  the  Port  Arthur  fleet,  attempted  a 
sortie  from  the  harbor  with  six  battleships,  four  cruisers  and 
eight  torpedo  boats.  Admiral  Togo's  squadron  met  the  Rus- 
sians outside  the  harbor,  and  an  all-day  fight  ensued.  Of 
the  Russian  fleet,  whose  commander  was  killed,  the  battle- 
ships Sevastopol,  Pobieda,  Peresviet,  Poltava,  and  Retvizan. 
and  the  cruiser  Pallada,  with  some  of  the  torpedo  boats 
returned  to  Port  Arthur  during  the  night.  The  battleship 
Czarevitch,  in  a  helpless  condition,  reached  Kiaochau,  a  Ger- 
man possession,  and  was  dismantled.  The  cruiser  Askold 


•'•\:.-yjJBROiJCHrofi/ 

•:;.-M     0#r 


KOREA,  THE  BONE  OF  CONTENTION. 


B-fi 


THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR  393 

and  one  destroyer,  the  former  badly  damaged,  made  their  way 
to  Shanghai;  the  cruiser  Diana  reached  Saignen,  a  French 
port,  south  of  Hong  Kong;  two  destroyers  were  beached 
near  Weihaiwei,  and  the  cruiser  Novik,  after  sailing  around 
Japan,  was  destroyed  August  20-21  at  Korsakovsk,  Sakhalin 
Islands,  by  the  Japanese  cruisers  Chitoso  and  Tsushima. 
That  naval  disaster  sealed  all  dreams  of  the  relief  of  Port 
Arthur,  for  it  settled  forever  Japan's  mastery  of  the  Pacific 
in  this  war. 

Five  days  later  the  Japanese  made  a  general  land  and 
naval  attack  upon  Port  Arthur,  the  troops  assaulting  with 
all  their  frenzied  vigor,  while  Admiral  Togo's  ships  threw 
a  rain  of  shells  over  the  hills  and  into  Port  Arthur  and  the 
Russian  defenses.  This  attack  was  not  decisive,  although 
the  Japanese  army  advancing  from  Louisa  Bay  eastward 
succeeded  in  driving  the  Russians  out  of  all  their  forts  in  the 
vicinity  of  Pigeon  Bay.  The  besiegers  could  not,  however, 
hold  these  positions  because  of  their  locations,  which  enabled 
the  guns  of  the  Russians'  inner  works  to  sweep  their  interiors. 
They  were  equally  untenable  for  the  Russians  under  the  fury 
of  the  Japanese  fire  and  the  battling  of  August  1 5  rested  with 
even  honors  on  each  side. 

On  August  17  the  Japanese  commander,  under  a  flag  of 
truce,  sent  a  note  to  General  Stcessel,  commanding  the  Port 
Arthur  garrison,  formally  demanding  the  surrender  of  the 
place,  and  asking,  in  case  his  demand  should  be  refused,  a 
cessation  of  hostilities  for  a  period  of  sufficient  duration  to 
permit  the  removal  by  Japanese  transports  of  all  the  non- 
combatants  from  within  the  Russian  lines.  General  Stoessel's 
reply  was  a  curt  refusal,  declining  once  and  for  all  time  the 
demand  for  a  surrender  of  the  garrison,  and  declaring  that 
there  was  no  occasion  for  the  removal  of  the  non-combatants. 

The  surrender  of  the  fortress  having  been  refused,  the 
Japanese,  whose  lines  had  been  advanced  almost  to  the  point 


394  THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR 

of  touching  the  Russian  inner  defences,  began  a  general 
assault  upon  these  works.  The  Japanese  artillery  played 
upon  the  Russian  forts  a  perfect  deluge  of  explosive  shells, 
and  time  and  time  again  the  Japanese  assaulted,  charging  up 
the  heights  in  the  face  of  a  withering  fire,  over  exploding 
mines,  and  with  inextinguishable  enthusiasm  throwing  them- 
selves against  the  Russian  works.  The  defenders  met  all  of 
these  attacks  without  flinching,  and  although  the  original 
garrison  of  about  40,000  men  had  been  greatly  reduced  by 
death,  wounds  and  disease,  the  defense  was  a  most  admirable 
one.  Upon  every  hand  the  assailants  were  repulsed  until 
August  21,  when  the  "Chair  Fort,"  on  Etzeshan  Hill,  a  very 
short  distance  to  the  northeast  of  the  city,  fell  into  their 
hands. 

Before  dawn  on  August  24  an  attempt  was  made  to  take 
several  forts  on  Ask  Ridge.  Four  hundred  guns  battered  the 
ridge,  and  regiment  after  regiment  made  desperate  assaults, 
only  to  be  driven  back  with  awful  losses.  When  the  Japanese 
had  retired  to  their  intrenchments  after  this  carnage  it  was 
estimated  that  10,000  men  had  fallen  before  the  Russian  fire 
between  August  19  and  August  25.  The  centre  division  lost 
6,000  men  and  one  regiment  lost  2,500. 

During  the  following  two  weeks  Stoessel's  forces  made 
sorties  hoping  to  retake  Banjusan  forts,  which  the  enemy  had 
occupied  some  time  before  but  these  attempts  failed.  Then 
the  Japanese  forces  settled  down  to  the  systematic  construc- 
tion of  siege  parallels,  working  by  night  while  Russian  search- 
lights played  over  the  fields  and  Russian  guns  kept  up  a 
steady  fire. 

While  the  siege  operations  were  going  on,  General  Nogi 
received  heavy  reinforcements  and  matters  were  sufficiently 
advanced  by  September  19  for  a  general  assault  early  in  the 
morning,  the  main  attack  being  made  against  Rihlung  Moun- 
tain, which  the  Japanese  had  twice  failed  to  carry.  These 


THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR  395 

works  were  especially  strong,  and  before  the  outer  redoubt 
was  won,  1,000  Japanese  had  fallen.  On  the  other  hand  the 
Russian  loss  was  small,  and  they  had  succeeded  in  saving  the 
main  forts.  On  the  same  evening  a  Japanese  attack  was 
made  on  the  half -moon  forts  in  the  Shuishi  Valley  but  it 
failed,  as  did  two  succeeding  assaults.  The  next  morning, 
however,  after  a  most  desperate  hand-to-hand  struggle,  the 
Russians  were  forced  to  evacuate. 

Holding  all  the  forts  taken,  General  Nogi  next  devoted 
his  time  to  placing  great  eleven-inch  howitzers,  and  on  October 
i ,  fire  was  directed  against  the  Uhr  Fort.  An  intrenched  hill 
near  this  redoubt  was  taken  on  October  16,  but  when  an 
assault  was  made  against  the  main  fort  on  October  26,  and 
the  Japanese  had  reached  the  outer  trenches,  mines  were 
exploded,  killing  scores  and  driving  back  the  assailants.  En- 
couraged by  this  success  the  Russians  made  a  sortie  the  next 
day  and  killed  300  Japanese. 

Again  General  Nogi  settled  down  to  building  counter 
trenches  and  parallels,  and  on  October  30  he  ordered  a  general 
attack  against  the  entire  line  of  defenses.  Thousands  fell, 
the  losses  to  the  besiegers  being  heavier  than  in  any  previous 
assaults:  the  battle  lasted  until  the  night  of  October  31,  and, 
while  they  had  been  repulsed  at  many  points,  the  Japanese 
forces  succeeded  in  taking  two  forts  on  Kekwan  Mountain, 
penetrating  the  main  line  of  defense  and  entering  the  wedge 
for  the  final  capture  of  Port  Arthur.  Then  came  a  futile  but 
spectacular  charge  against  the  Sungshu  forts,  in  which  Gen- 
erals Nakamura  and  Saito  led  a  picked  body  of  expert  swords- 
men. Dashing  against  the  parapets,  they  were  met  by  volleys 
and  the  fire  of  machine  guns  and  hurled  back  in  confusion. 

Meanwhile  operations  were  approaching  a  climax  on  the 
Japanese  right.  Several  weeks  before  the  Japanese  had  been 
repulsed  in  a  desperate  charge  against  the  forts  on  20 3-Metre 
Hill,  but  by  sapping,  the  line  had  been  drawn  close  to  the 


THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR  397 

defense  works,  and  during  the  first  week  of  December  daily 
attacks  were  made  on  this  important  position,  which  com- 
manded the  harbor  of  Port  Arthur.  The  assaults  culminated 
on  December  10,  when,  after  thousands  of  the  brave  Japanese 
soldiers  had  fallen,  when  the  slopes  ran  red  with  blood,  when 
Drenches  filled  with  burning  petroleum  spread  death,  and 
dynamite  bombs  were  hurled  back  and  forth,  the  Russians 
were  driven  out  and  the  Japanese  flag  floated  on  the  walls. 
But  the  cost  was  mounting  with  frightful  rapidity.  It  was 
said  that  from  October  i  to  December  10  more  than  14,000 
of  the  Mikado's  troops  fell. 

In  a  few  days  great  siege  guns  were  mounted,  and  one  by 
one  the  Russian  warships  in  Port  Arthur  harbor  were  sunk. 
The  Pobieda,  Bayan,  Retvizan,  Poltava,  Pallada,  Peresviet 
and  Giliak  were  plainly  visible  two  miles  away  and  could  be 
seen  crumbling  to  wreck  as  the  enormous  shells  repeatedly 
struck  them.  To  escape  destruction  the  battleship  Sevas- 
topol steamed  to  the  outer  harbor  under  the  protection  of  a 
hill,  but  on  the  night  of  December  14  two  flotillas  of  Japanese 
torpedo  boats  attacked  the  warship  and  sank  her  with  the 
loss  of  one  from  their  number. 

Hardly  had  203-Metre  Hill  been  taken  when  the  aggressive 
Nogi  turned  his  attention  to  the  great  Rihlung  Fort,  two 
miles  from  the  town  of  Port  Arthur.  Elaborate  'trenches 
had  been  dug  to  the  very  base  of  the  great  stone  and  earth 
walls,  and  seven  dynamite  mines  were  made  ready.  Early 
in  the  morning  of  December  29  the  mines  were  exploded, 
breaches  were  made  in  the  walls,  and  through  these  the 
Mikado's  troops  swarmed.  Five  hundred  Russian  defenders 
made  a  gallant  stand,  but  in  the  end  they  were  forced  to  flee. 
This  was  the  first  of  the  main  forts  on  the  inner  line  to  be 
taken.  The  Japanese  troops,  after  months  of  labor  and  at 
an  awful  sacrifice  in  life,  were  now  face  to  face  with  the  last 
chain  of  forts,  and  Port  Arthur's  end  was  in  sight. 


39*  THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR 

All  these  achievements  served  to  cut  communications 
between  the  Liaotie  fort,  destined  to  be  "the  last  ditch"  of 
the  defenders,  from  a  great  part  of  the  chain  of  forts.  From 
the  hour  of  the  fall  of  East  Kekwan  events  hastened  to 
their  culmination,  for  on  December  31  a  part  of  Sungshu 
Mountain  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  besiegers,  and  only  a  few 
hours  later  the  H  fort,  another  strong  position,  was  captured. 

On  Sunday,  January  i,  the  Russian  spirit  was  utterly 
broken.  The  Japanese  storming  columns  at  dawn  completed 
the  capture  of  Sungshu  Mountain,  and  a  few  hours  later  all 
of  the  northern  forts  were  in  their  possession.  At  five  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon  Wantai  or  Signal  Hill  was  captured  by  storm 
and  the  whole  interior  of  the  stronghold  lay  at  the  mercy  of 
the  besiegers'  artillery.  Realizing  that  within  the  next  twenty- 
four  hours  the  Japanese  might  swarm  into  the  city  and  wreak 
their  will  upon  the  garrison,  Lieutenant  General  Stoessel,  late 
Sunday  evening,  sent  a  white  flag  to  General  Nogi  offering 
to  surrender  the  fortress.  His  offer  was  accepted  on  Monday, 
January  2,  bringing  to  an  end  the  siege  which  had  lasted  for 
ten  months  and  twenty-four  days. 

During  the  last  weeks  of  the  siege  the  condition  of  the 
garrison  was  most  desperate.  Several  of  the  brigade  and 
division  commanders  counseled  surrender,  especially  after 
the  news  of  the  defeat  of  General  Kuropatkin  on  the  Shakhe 
River,  but  General  Stoessel,  who  had  telegraphed  his  family 
at  the  beginning  of  the  siege:  "Farewell;  Port  Arthur  will 
be  my  tomb,"  held  on  with  marvelous  persistency  and  by 
personally  leading  countercharges  against  the  Japanese  so 
endeared  himself  to  the  troops  that  the  soldiers  warmly  sup- 
ported him  in  his  determination  to  hold  out  as  long  as  resist- 
ance could  be  offered. 

Lack  of  food,  lack  of  pure  water,  scarcity  of  medicines, 
the  utter  absence  of  anaesthetics,  making  frightful  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  wounded,  the  ravages  of  'disease,  the  ever- 


THE  FALL  OF  PORT  ARTHUR  399 

present  fear  of  death,  the  incessant  roar  of  the  siege  guns, 
all  tended  strongly  to  make  the  hearts  of  brave  men  turn 
faint,  but  the  Russian  garrison  did  not  falter;  the  soldiers 
fought  on,  day  and  night,  with  a  heroism  that  excited  the 
admiration  of  the  whole  world,  and  of  no  one  more  than  the 
Japanese. 

Admiral  Kamimura  had  meanwhile  secured  his  revenge 
upon  the  marauding  Vladivostok  squadron.  On  August  14, 
the  three  great  cruisers,  Rossia,  Rurik,  and  Gromoboi,  at- 
tempted to  dash  through  the  Korea  Strait,  where  he  was  on 
guard.  Their  approach  was  signaled  by  wireless  telegraphy, 
and  the  Japanese  caught  them,  sank  the  Rurik,  and  chased 
the  Rossia  and  Gromoboi  back  to  Vladivostok,  which  they 
reached  in  a  disabled  condition.  Thus  this  dreaded  force 
was  eliminated  from  the  estimates  of  Russian  naval  strength. 

In  October,  after  the  war  had  been  dragging  on  for  eight 
months,  the  Baltic  fleet,  which  might  have  changed  the  bal- 
ance of  power  if  it  had  started  earlier,  got  under  way  for  the 
East,  and,  in  passing  through  the  North  Sea,  fired  on  some 
British  trawlers,  a  mistake  which  nearly  caused  war  between 
Russia  and  England.  Part  of  it,  under  the  commander-in- 
chief,  Vice-Admiral  Rojestvensky,  went  around  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  a  division  under  Rear- Admiral  Voelkersam 
through  the  Suez  Canal.  The  two  divisions  were  expected 
to  unite  at  some  point  in  the  Indian  Ocean  and  proceed  to 
Port  Arthur  or  Vladivostok.  The  destruction  of  the  Port 
Arthur  squadron,  and  the  capture  of  the  fortress,  left  them 
with  no  destination,  and  relieved  Togo  of  the  necessity  of 
keeping  his  main  force  on  blockading  duty.  The  bulk  of 
the  Japanese  fleet  immediately  went  home  to  refit,  and  in 
anticipation  Togo  sent  a  force  southward,  either  to  intercept 
or  to  observe  the  Baltic  vessels. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

The  Personal  Point  of  View 

The  Author  on  the  Scene  of  'Conflict — First  Impressions  in  Japan — Close  Co-opera- 
tion of  the  Japanese — Native  Enthusiasm  and  Depression — Talks  with 
Foreign  Residents — Chemulpo — Port  Arthur. 

WHEN  the  author  arrived  at  Nagasaki  on  the  United 
States  Army  Transport  Sherman,  overloaded  with 
soldiers  and  their  officers  returning  to  America  from 
the  Philippines,  the  interest  of  all  was  naturally  keyed  to  a  high 
point  on  this  approach  to  the  Japanese  port  nearest  to  the  zone 
of  actual  hostilities.  The  transport  was  to  lie  in  Nagasaki 
harbor  for  two  days  in  order  to  coal  for  the  long  Trans-Pacific 
voyage  ahead  to  San  Francisco.  Meanwhile  the  passengers 
hastened  ashore  for  the  double  purpose  of  seeing  Japan,  and 
also  in  the  hope  of  seeing  some  reflection  of  the  war,  which 
at  this  time  was  the  uppermost  subject  of  conversation. 

A  few,  including  myself,  who  intended  to  make  a  pro- 
longed stay  in  the  country,  surrendered  our  baggage  to  casually 
selected  members  of  the  dirty  crowd  of  coolies  who  swarmed 
up  the  sides  of  the  transport,  and  then  following  in  their 
wake  were  rowed  ashore  in  queer  boats  called  sampans.  A 
perfunctory  examination  of  our  effects  at  the  Custom  House, 
the  inevitable  dispute  with  the  sampan  coolies  over  payment, 
a  very  short  jinricksha  ride,  and  our  party  was  comfortably 
housed  at  the  Nagasaki  Hotel,  facing  the  water  front.  The 
usual  itinerary  of  sight  seeing  was  duly  followed,  and  forty- 
eight  hours  later,  farewells  having  been  made  to  those  of  our 
countrymen  departing  for  San  Francisco,  the  transport 
26  401 


4o2  THE  PERSONAL  POINT  OF  VIEW 

steamed  down  the  Bay,  and,  as  far  as  those  remaining  were 
concerned,  became  but  a  memory. 

That  night  while  taking  dinner  with  Captain  Barker, 
the  local  transport  United  States  Army  Quartermaster,  he 
inquired  if  I  had  noticed  any  evidence  of  warlike  activity 
during  the  past  two  days.  I  was  forced  to  admit  that  my 
curiosity  in  that  direction  had  not  been  rewarded  in  the 
slightest,  that  in  all  I  had  not  seen  above  a  dozen  Japanese 
soldiers  on  the  streets.  The  Captain  then  informed  me  that 
the  previous  night  a  force  of  20,000  Japanese  soldiers  had 
been  brought  into  Nagasaki  by  train,  had  been  carried  out 
into  the  Bay  on  sampans,  loaded  into  a  Japanese  transport, 
and  before  daylight  had  left  for  some  port  in  Korea.  The 
Captain  further  added  that  Nagasaki  was  one  of  the  two  most 
important  points  of  embarkation  for  Japanese  troops,  as 
well  as  of  all  kinds  of  supplies,  the  other  port  being  Mogi  at 
the  southern  entrance  of  the  Japan  Sea.  Thus  my  first 
impression  of  the  war  at  fairly  close  hand  was  the  marvelous 
secrecy  of  the  Japanese. 

Some  time  later,  while  in  Korea,  I  was  passing  through 
a  city  occupied  by  Japanese  troops,  and  in  the  evening  found 
groups  of  four  to  a  dozen  lounging  before  the  open  fronts  of 
every  residence.  I  stopped  to  converse  in  our  limited  com- 
mon vocabulary,  supplemented  by  the  universal  sign  language, 
and  incidentally,  with  natural  curiosity,  reached  for  one  of 
the  rifles  which  was  standing  against  a  wall  nearby.  The 
rapid-fire  of  chaff  and  good-natured  fun  which  had  been 
expended  between  us  up  to  this  time  suddenly  ceased.  The 
owner  of  the  rifle  snatched  it  from  my  hands,  and  I  was 
plainly  made  to  see  that  it  was  not  to  be  examined.  Accept- 
ing the  rebuff  with  good  nature,  in  another  moment  our 
former  relations  were  restored,  but  the  nature  of  the  Japanese 
rifle,  made  by  Japanese  workmen  in  the  Japanese  city  of 
Osaka,  and  used  with  such  marvelous  effect  by  Japanese 


THE  PERSONAL  POINT  OF  VIEW  403 

soldiers  in  this  war,  remained  as  great  a  mystery  in  its  con- 
struction to  me  as  were  the  first  firearms  of  the  Spanish 
invaders  of  Mexico  to  the  Incas,  whom  they  subdued. 

During  the  weeks  that  followed  in  Japan,  as  I  traveled 
on  to  Tokio  and  again  back  to  Nagasaki  by  rail  and  by  water 
there  were  countless  instances  of  the  same  unanimity  cf  cc 
operation   in    the   smallest    details    of    military   preparation 
between  the  highest  authorities  and  the  lowest  in  rank.     The 
Japanese  have  developed  an  almost  inconceivable  capacity 
for  the  consideration  of  every  detail,   and  with  the  result 
that  reports  of  commanders  in  the  field  and  on  sea  have  even 
concluded  with  the  phrase  "As  Pre- Arranged." 

On  my  first  visit  to  Japan,  as  the  train  sped  onward  to 
Tokio,  we  passed  hundreds  of  troop  trains  on  their  way  to 
one  of  the  two  ports  of  embarkation  for  the  front.  At  every 
town  and  village,  reception  platforms  had  been  erected, 
gaily  decorated  with  flags,  lanterns  and  streamers,  and  on 
each  a  representation  of  the  Rising  Sun,  the  emblem  of  Dai 
Nippon.  Large  crowds  of  natives  greeted  each  troop  train 
as  it  passed  by,  or  halting  for  a  few  moments,  furnished  the 
soldiers  with  refreshments.  School  children  lined  up  in 
semi-military  formation  sang  patriotic  songs  and  hymns, 
while  occasionally  a  brass  band  of  foreign  importation,  the 
members  of  which  wore  foreign  uniforms,  with  conspicuous 
awkwardness,  played  "Marching  Through  Georgia"  or  "The 
Suwanee  River"  with  a  dolefulness  that  can  only  be  matched 
by  the  early  rehearsals  of  the  village  band  in  rural  America. 
All  was  enthusiasm.  Everybody  cheered,  and  no  one  more 
than  the  soldiers.  Several  months  later  on  the  occasion  cf 
my  third  visit  to  Japan,  when  I  passed  through  the  Korean 
Straits  into  Mogi  Harbor  during  the  raid  of  the  Vladivostok 
squadron,  I  noticed  a  decided  change  in  the  attitude  of  the 
Japanese.  The  success  of  the  Russians  in  sinking  several 
transports,  the  accidental  collision  between  two  others,  and 


4o4  THE  PERSONAL  POINT  OF  VIEW 

the  loss  of  several  thousand  men,  following  close  on  the  ter- 
rible losses  with  which  each  Japanese  victory  against  the 
Russians  had  been  purchased,  had  all  produced  a  decided 
effect  on  both  the  train  loads  of  soldiers,  which  still  passed 
with  the  same  frequency  over  the  railways,  and  on  the  natives 
which  thronged  the  stations.  Their  enthusiasm  was  gone. 
The  tone  was  that  of  depression.  The  brass  bands  were  not 
in  evidence.  Even  the  flags>and  streamers  looked  discour- 
aged, as  their  rain- washed  colors  no  longer  presented  the  same 
brilliant  appearance.  Along  the  wharves,  where  a  few  months 
previously  crowds  had  thronged  the  water's  edge,  now  stood 
small  groups  of  quiet  natives,  while  the  cheeks  of  the  majority 
of  the  women  were  tear-stained.  A  vivid  contrast,  and 
equally  vivid  reflection,  of  the  strain  the  terrible  price  in 
human  life  the  Japanese  nation  was  paying  for  its  early  vic- 
tories, was  making  upon  her  people. 

It  was  a  source  of  great  surprise,  in  conversation,  to  find 
that  the  sympathies  of  many  of  the  European  and  American 
merchants  in  the  various  leading  cities  of  Japan  were  more 
with  the  Russian  cause  than  with  Dai  Nippon.  The  cause 
of  this  in  some  instances  was  due  to  the  fact  that  especially 
during  the  summer  months  great  numbers  of  Russian  tourists 
visited  Japan.  The  Russian  is  a  good  spender.  He  buys 
freely,  and  the  breaking  off  of  commercial  relations  between 
the  two  countries  has  caused  great  loss,  the  bulk  of  which 
naturally  falls  to  the  foreign  merchants.  Another  reason 
for  this  strange  hostility  to  the  Japanese  side  is  found  in  the 
assertion  of  many  foreigners  of  long  residence  in  Japan  that 
the  Japanese  character  since  their  victory  over  China,  ten 
years  previously,  had  steadily  grown  in  arrogance  and  con- 
ceit. A  further  victory  over  the  great  European  nation  of 
Russia,  I  was  informed  repeatedly,  would  bring  this  arrogance 
and  overbearing  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  Japanese  towards 
all  foreigners  to  such  a  point  as  to  be  unbearable.  On  further 


THE  PERSONAL  POINT  OF  VIEW  405 

investigation  I  find  that  it  is  quite  true  that  even  England 
and  America,  whom  the  Japanese  profess  to  have  such  great 
friendship  for,  are  discriminated  against  by  the  Japanese 
authorities  in  the  commercial  field,  as  well  as  in  the  courts 
of  law,  where  it  is  commonly  said:  "It  is  impossible  for  a 
foreigner  to  get  justice  if  his  case  is  against  a  Japanese." 

My  entry  into  the  historic  harbor  of  Chemulpo,  where 
the  first  shot  of  the  war  was  fired  by  one  of  the  guns  on  the 
Russian  gunboat  Korietz,  on  the  afternoon  of  February  8, 
1904,  as  fully  discussed  elsewhere,  was  made  on  a  Norwegian 
tramp  steamer,  the  captain  of  which  had  made  several  suc- 
cessful blockade  runs  into  Port  Arthur  with  contraband  of 
war. 

At  Chemulpo,  I  met  many  foreigners,  naval  officers,  as 
well  as  the  English  Consul,  who,  during  the  progress  of  the 
famous  naval  engagement  in  the  harbor  had  had  two  men 
watching  every  detail  of  the  fighting  with  telescopes  from 
an  elevation  above  the  water.  From  these  sources  I  was 
able  to  connect  the  various  conflicting  threads  of  the  story 
of  that  fight,  which  in  detail  is  given  in  another  part  of  this 
volume.  While  still  at  Chemulpo  the  sky  line  off  the  harbor 
became  greatly  darkened  by  thick  clouds  of  smoke.  A  launch, 
engaged  for  the  purpose,  took  me  out  a  short  distance,  and 
I  learned  that  the  smoke  was  caused  by  the  fleet  of  transports 
taking  the  Second  Army  to  Manchuria,  there  to  act  in  co- 
operation with  the  First  Army  on  the  Yalu,  by  cutting  off  the 
land  connections  between  the  main  forces  of  the  Russians 
and  Port  Arthur.  Later  on,  in  spite  of  the  instructions  of 
the  Japanese  authorities,  and  the  many  floating  torpedoes 
and  contact  mines  in  the  Yellow  Sea,  I  was  enabled  to  get 
within  a  short  distance  of  this  famous  fortress  on  another 
tramp  steamer,  on  which  I  traveled  well  within  sight  of  the 
entire  Liao-Tung  Peninsula,  from  the  Port  of  Newchang  to 
Chefoo. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

The  Massacre  at  St.  Petersburg 

Constitutional  Agitation  in  Russia — Conference  of  Zemstvos — Demands  of  the 
People — Press  Censorship — Resolutions  of  the  Lawyers — Condemned  to  Exile 
— Is  the  End  of  Autocracy  Coming? — The  Fight  for  Reform — Insolent  Police 
Omnipotence — Good  Material  in  the  Zemstvos — Warning  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution— Nicholas  Rebuffs  the  Zemstvos — The  Strike  in  St.  Petersburg — 
Gopon — Bloodshed  before  the  Winter  Palace — Assassination  of  Grand  Duke 
Sergius. 

EXTRAORDINARY  agitation  was  fermenting  among  the 
people  of  European  Russia  during  the  last  part  of  the 
year  1904.     The  Liberals  and  the  Socialists  began  to 
take  advantage  of  the  government's  reverses  in  the  Far  East 
to  press  their  claims  for  less  autocratic  rule  at  home.     And 
their  efforts  were  directed  toward  securing  recognition  for  the 
Zemstvos.     How  rebuff  after  rebuff  was  offered  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  people  until  finally  the  popular  outcry  was 
hushed  for  a  time  by  the  slaughter  of  several  thousand  men, 
women  and  children  is  told  in  this  chapter. 

The  Zemstvos  are  the  governing  bodies  of  the  Russian 
provinces.  They  are  supposed  to  be  constituted  by  law  and 
to  govern  all  the  provinces,  although  in  point  of  fact  only 
'thirty-four  of  the  eighty-seven  provinces  have  Zemstvos. 
Under  the  Russian  form  of  government  these  bodies  are  per- 
haps nearer  the  people  than  any  others.  For  weeks  they  had 
been  in  conference  attempting  to  get  Czar  Nicholas  to  take 
some  decisive  action.  The  things  they  were  trying  to  accom- 
plish were  the  abolition  of  the  passport  system,  the  free- 
dom of  the  press  and  participation  in  the  Government  through 
one  or  two  elected  bodies.  The  ballot  was  their  greatest  de- 
sire, for  with  this  they  would  be  in  a  position  to  accomplish 
other  reforms. 
406 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  407 

A  comprehensive  view  of  this  agitation  for  constitutional 
government  in  Russia  is  given  in  an  article  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  for  January,  1905,  by  Prince  Peter  Kropotkin,  from 
whom  we  quote  a  number  of  the  following  pages : 

The  greatest  excitement  prevailed  in  Russia  when  it 
became  known  that  the  representatives  of  the  Zemstvos  of 
thirty-four  provinces  of  the  Empire  were  going  to  meet  at 
St.  Petersburg  in  order  to  discuss  the  necessary  reforms  in  the 
general  political  organization  of  the  country.  The  very  fact 
that  such  an  authorisation  had  been  granted  was  equivalent 
to  an  invitation  to  discuss  a  scheme  of  a  Constitution ;  and  so 
it  was  understood  everywhere.  When  the  Zemstvo  delegates 
were  leaving  their  respective  provincial  towns  they  were  sent 
off  by  groups  of  enthusiastic  friends,  whose  parting  words 
were:  "Return  with  a  Constitution!" 

Their  original  intention  was  to  make  of  their  conference 
a  solemn  official  gathering  which  would  speak  to  the  Govern- 
ment in  its  official  capactiy,  but  at  the  last  moment  the  Minis- 
ter of  the  Interior  refused  to  grant  the  necessary  authorisation ; 
and  as  the  Zemstvo  delegates  declared  that  they  were  decided 
to  meet  nevertheless,  they  were  informed  that  they  could  do 
so  only  in  private,  and  that  their  conference  would  be  treated 
as  a  private  gathering,  but  that  their  resolutions  could  be 
handed  by  a  few  delegates  to  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  and 
through  his  intermediacy  to  the  Emperor.  This  is  how  this 
Conference,  which  surely  will  become  an  important  historical 
date,  took  place  on  the  ipth,  2oth,  and  2ist  of  November  at 
St.  Petersburg. 

The  decisions  of  the  conference  were  expressed  in  eleven 
resolutions,  which,  as  will  be  seen  presently,  are  now  becoming 
the  programme  of  an  agitation  which  is  gradually  spreading 
all  over  Russia.  Moreover,  in  contrast  with  all  the  petitions 
addressed  to  the  Tsar  on  previous  occasions  by  certain  Zemst- 
vos,  the  present  memorandum  is  couched  in  far  more  dignifi;  1 


4°S  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

language  and  in  definite  terms.  It  begins  by  mentioning 
"the  abnormal  character  of  State  government  which  has  de- 
veloped since  the  beginning  of  the  eighties  (1881),  and  consists 
in  a  complete  estrangement  of  the  Government  from  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  absence  of  that  mutual  confidence  which  is  neces- 
sary for  the  life  of  the  State"  (§  i).  'The  present  relations 
between  the  Government  and  the  people" — they  say  further 
on — "are  based  on  a  fear  of  the  people's  self -administration, 
and  on  the  exclusion  of  the  people  from  the  management  of 
State  affairs"  (§2).  The  result  of  it  is  that  while  the  bureau- 
cracy separates  the  Supreme  Power  (read  The  Emperor)  from 
the  nation,  it  thus  creates  the  very  conditions  for  an  entire 
lawlessness  in  the  administration,  in  which  the  personal  will 
of  every  functionary  takes  the  place  of  law  (§  3).  This  de- 
stroys confidence  in  the  Government  and  hampers  the  devel- 
opment of  the  State  (§§3  and  4).  Consequently,  the  Zemst- 
vos  express  the  following  desiderata,  which  deserve  to  be 
given  in  full,  because  in  such  history-making  documents  as 
this  the  wording  is  almost  as  important  as  the  general  idea. 

"  (5)  I*1  order  to  put  an  end  to  this  lawlessness  of  the 
Administration,  the  inviolability  of  the  individual  and  the 
private  dwelling  must  be  proclaimed  and  thoroughly  carried 
out  in  life.  Nobody  can  have  any  punishment  or  any  restric- 
tion of  his  rights  inflicted  upon  him  without  a  sentence  hav- 
ing been  pronounced  to  this  effect  by  an  independent  magis- 
trate. For  this  purpose  it  is  moreover  necessary  to  establish 
such  a  responsibility  of  the  members  of  the  Administration 
as  would  allow  of  their  being  legally  prosecuted  for  each  breach 
of  the  law,  in  order  thus  to  secure  legality  in  the  actions  of  the 
functionaries. 

"  (6)  For  the  full  development  of  the  intellectual  forces 
of  the  nation,  as  also  the  expression  of  the  real  wants  of  society 
and  the  free  exercise  of  public  opinion,  freedom  of  conscience, 


A  RUSSIAN  CONVICT  SETTLEMENT  IN  SIBERIA 

By  the  arbitrary  government  of  the  Czar,  people  accused  of  political  and  other  offenses  may,  without 
rial,  be  sent  to  the  cold  regions  of  Siberia,  to  undergo  the  horrors  of  the  Siberian  exile.  This  illus- 
•ation  shows  the  prisoners  in  the  exercise  grounds  -with  theirwretched  huts  in  the  background. 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  409 

religion,  speech,  and  press,  as  also  of  meeting  and  association, 
must  be  guaranteed. 

"  (7)  The  personal  and  political  rights  of  all  the  citizens 
of  the  empire  must  be  equal. 

"  (8)  Self -administration  being  the  main  condition  for 
the  development  of  the  political  and  economical  life  of  the 
country,  and  the  main  body  of  the  population  of  Russia  be- 
longing to  the  class  of  the  peasants,  these  last  must  be  placed 
in  the  conditions  that  are  necessary  .for  the  development  of 
self-help  and  energy,  and  this  can  only  be  obtained  by  putting 
an  end  to  the  present  subordinate  and  lawless  position  of  the 
peasants.  Therefore  it  is  necessary:  (a)  to  equalize  the  rights 
of  the  peasants  with  those  of  all  other  classes ;  (b)  to  free  them 
from  the  rule  of  the  Administration  in  all  their  personal  and 
social  affairs;  and  (c)  to  grant  them  a  regular  form  of  justice. 

"  (9)  The  provincial  and  the  municipal  institutions  which 
are  the  main  organs  of  local  life  must  be  placed  in  such  con- 
ditions as  to  render  them  capable  of  performing  the  functions 
of  organs  of  self -administration,  endowed  with  wide  powers. 
It  is  necessary  for  this  purpose:  (a)  that  the  representation 
in  the  Zemstvos  should  not  be  based  on  class  principles,  and 
that  all  forces  of  the  population  should  be  summoned,  as  far 
as  possible,  to  take  part  in  that  administration;  (6)  that  the 
Zemstvo  institutions  should  be  brought  nearer  to  the  people 
by  instituting  a  smaller  self-administrative  unit ;  (c)  that  the 
circle  of  activity  of  the  Zemstvos  and  the  municipal  institu- 
tions should  include  all  the  local  needs ;  and  (d)  that  these  insti- 
tutions should  acquire  the  necessary  stability  and  independ- 
ence, without  which  no  regular  development  of  their  activity 
and  their  relations  to  the  organs  of  the  Government  is  possi- 
ble. Local  self-government  must  be  extended  to  all  the  parts 
of  the  Empire. 

"  (10)  For  creating  and  maintaining  a  close  intercourse 
between  the  government  and  the  nation,  on  the  basis  of  the 


^:o  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

just- mentioned  principles,  and  for  the  regular  development 
of  the  life  of  the  State,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  repre- 
sentatives of  the  nation,  constituting  a  specially  elected  body, 
should  participate  in  the  legislative  power,  the  establishment 
of  the  State's  budget,  and  the  control  of  the  administration. 
(The  minority  of  the  conference,  consisting  of  twenty-seven 
persons,  accepted  this  paragraph  only  as  far  as  the  words 
'should  participate  in  the  legislative  power.') 

"  (n)  In  view  of  the  gravity  and  the  difficulties  of  both 
the  internal  and  external  conditions  which  the  nation  is  now 
living  through,  this  private  conference  expresses  the  hope 
that  the  supreme  power  will  call  together  the  representatives 
of  the  nation,  in  order  to  lead  our  Fatherland,  with  their  help, 
on  to  a  new  path  of  national  development  in  the  sense  of  es- 
tablishing a  closer  union  between  the  State's  authority  and 
the  nation." 

This  memorandum,  signed  by  102  delegates  out  of  104 — 
two  abstaining — was  handed  to  Prince  Sviatopolk  Mirsky, 
and  through  him  to  the  Emperor.  Four  more  resolutions 
were  taken  later  on  by  the  same  Conference,  and  they  offer  a 
special  interest,  as  they  represent  a  first  attempt  at  legislation 
upon  a  definite  subject  in  the  form,  well  known  in  olden  times 
in  this  country,  of  a  Royal  petition.  Three  of  these  resolu- 
tions, which  concern  education,  blame  the  Government  for 
its  negative  attitude  in  this  matter,  and  ask  full  freedom  for' 
the  Zemstvos  to  deal  with  it;  while  the  fourth  demands  the 
abrogation  of  the  state-of-siege  law  and  an  amnesty  in  the 
following  terms: 

"Considering  that  the  Law  of  the  26th  of  August  1881, 
embodying  the  measures  for  the  Maintenance  of  Order  in  the 
State  (state-of-siege  law)  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  which  favor 
the  development  of  lawlessness  in  the  Administration  and 
breed  popular  discontent,  which  both  stand  in  the  way  of 
mutual  confidence  and  unity  between  the  Government  and 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  4II 

the  population,  the  Conference  finds  that  the  repeal  of  this 
law  is  desirable.  Besides,  taking  into  consideration  that  the 
system  of  administratively  inflicted  penalties,  which  has  been 
applied  lately  on  c.  large  scale  in  virtue  of  that  law,  has  pro- 
duced a  great  number  of  victims  of  the  arbitrary  actions  of 
the  administration  who  are  now  suffering  various  penalties 
and  limitations  in  their  legal  rights,  the  Conference  considers 
it  its  duty  to  express  itself  in  favor  of  a  complete  remission 
of  all  penalties  inflicted  by  mere  orders  of  the  Administration. 
It  expresses  at  the  same  time  the  hope  that  the  Supreme 
Power  will  introduce  pacification  in  the  country  by  an  act  of 
amnesty  for  all  persons  undergoing  penalties  for  political 
offences." 

The  Press  was  not  permitted  to  mention  the  Zemstvo 
Conference,  or  to  discuss  its  resolutions;  but  the  latter  were 
hectographed  in  thousands  of  copies  at  St.  Petersburg,  re- 
printed in  a  more  or  less  clandestine  way  in  many  cities,  and 
spread  broadcast  all  over  Russia.  On  the  other  side,  as  soon 
as  Sviatopolk  Mirsky  had  made  his  declarations  about  the 
need  of  "  confidence  between  the  Government  and  the  nation," 
confirming  his  declarations  by  the  release  of  a  small  number 
of  "administrative"  exiles — the  Press  at  once  adopted  quite  a 
new  tone.  The  need  for  a  new  departure,  under  which  the 
nation  would  be  called  to  participate  in  the  government  of 
the  country,  began  to  be  expressed  in  a  very  outspoken  way. 
All  the  main  questions  concerning  the  revision  of  taxation, 
the  necessity  of  not  merely  returning  to  the  original  law  of 
the  Zemstvos  (altered  in  1890),  but  of  revising  it  in  the  sense 
of  an  abolition  of  the  present  division  into  "orders; "the  ne- 
cessity of  re-establishing  the  elected  Justices  of  the  Peace, 
and  of  granting  a  thorough  self-government  to  all  the  provinces 
of  the  Empire;  the  equality  of  political  rights  of  all  citizens, 
and  so  on — these  and  numbers  of  similar  questions  are  dis- 
cussed now  with  the  greatest  liberty  in  the  daily  Press,  and 


4i2  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

nobody  conceals  any  longer  his  disgust  of  the  reactionary 
regime  which  has  swayed  Russia  for  the  last  thirty  years. 

Of  course,  censorship  continues  to  make  its  victims.  The 
review  Law  (Pravo)  has  already  received  two  warnings,  and 
of  the  two  new  dailies,  one  (Son  of  the  Fatherland),  which 
came  out  under  a  new  "populist"  editorship,  is  already  sup- 
pressed for  three  months;  while  the  other  (Our  Life),  which 
has  Social  Democratic  tendencies,  has  its  sale  in  the  streets 
forbidden.  With  all  that,  the  Press,  with  a  striking  unanimity 
support  the  Zemstvo  resolutions,  without  naming  them. 
Even  the  Novoyc  Vremya,  which  has  always  vacillated  be- 
tween ultra-Conservative  and  Liberal  opinions,  according 
to  the  direction  of  the  wind  in  the  upper  spheres,  is  now  Con- 
stitutionalist. As  to  the  ultra-reactionary  Prince  Meschersky, 
owner  of  the  Grazhdanin,  he  has  published  some  of  the  most 
outspoken  articles  against  the  old  regime — only  to  turn  next 
day  against  those  who  demand  a  Constitution.  Since  1861, 
this  gentleman's  house  has  been  the  centre  of  a  semi-Slavo- 
phile but  chiefly  landlord  and  bureaucracy  opposition  to  the 
reforms  of  Alexander  the  Second.  Hold  was  adroitly  taken 
in  this  centre  of  the  two  successive  heirs  to  the  throne,  Nikoki 
Alexandrovitch  and  his  brother,  who  became  later  on  Alex- 
ander the  Third,  in  order  to  secure,  through  them,  an  over- 
throw of  all  the  reforms  made  by  their  father.  Now,  the 
Grazhdanin  reflects  the  unsettled  condition  of  mind  in  the 
Winter  Palace  spheres.  The  Moscoiv  Gazette  is  thus  the  only 
consequent  defender  of  the  old  regime.  At  the  same  time, 
the  Provincial  Press  acquires  a  new  importance  every  day, 
especially  in  Southern,  South- Western,  and  South-Eastern 
Russia.  I  have  several  of  these  papers  before  me,  and  can- 
not but  admire  the  straightforward  and  well-informed  way 
in  which  they  discuss  all  political  questions.  They  reveal 
quite  a  new  provincial  life. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  render  in  a  few  words  the  depth 


TWO  INTERESTING  RUSSIAN    SCENES 

One  a  mounted  Cossack  in  the  rural  districts,  and  the  other  Russian  peasants  at 
a  Railway  Station  in  Manchuria. 


A  TYPICAL  SCENE  IN  KOREA 


The  Koreans  resemble  the 
with  the  Russo-Jap 
Korean  maiden  dan 


ble  the  Japanese  in  many  respects.  The  country  is  especially  interesting  in  connection 
5anese  War  as  each  nation  is  trying  for  supremacy  in  Korea.  This  picture  represents  a 
icing  the  fan  dance  before  the  military  officers. 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  413 

and  breadth  of  the  agitation  provoked  in  Russia  by  the  Zem- 
stvo  Conference.  To  begin  with, '  'the  Resolutions ' '  were  signed 
at  once  by  numbers  of  persons  of  high  standing  in  St.  Petersburg 
society,  who  do  not  belong  to  the  Zemstvos.  The  same  is 
now  done  in  the  provinces,  so  that  the  memorandum  of  the 
Zemstvos  becomes  a  sort  of  ultimatum — it  cannot  be  called 
a  petition — addressed  by  the  educated  portion  of  the  nation 
to  the  Emperor.  In  most  provincial  cities  the  return  of  the 
Zemstvo  delegates  is  being  made  the  occasion  of  influential 
meetings,  at  which  the  members  of  the  Provincial  Assemblies 
(the  District  Assemblies  will  follow  suit)  send  to  St.  Peters- 
burg their  approval  of  the  resolutions ;  while  numbers  of  land- 
lords and  other  influential  persons  in  the  provinces  seize  this 
opportunity  for  adding  their  signatures  to  those  of  the  Zemstvo 
delegates. 

Wherever  a  few  educated  persons  come  together,  nothing 
is  spoken  of  but  the  coming  Constitution.  Even  the  appalling 
war  has  been  relegated  to  the  background,  while  the  consti- 
tutional agitation  takes  every  day  some  new  form.  In  the 
universities,  both  professors  and  students  join  it.  The  former 
sign  the  resolutions,  while  the  latter  formulate  similar  reso- 
lutions, or  organise  street  demonstrations  to  support  them. 
Such  demonstrations  have  taken  place  already  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, Moscow,  and  Kieff,  and  they  surely  will  be  joined  by 
working  men  as  soon  as  they  spread  southwards.  And  if  they 
are  dispersed  by  force  they  will  result  in  bloodshed,  of  which 
none  can  foresee  the  end. 

Another  important  current  in  the  movement  was  created 
by  the  celebrations  of  the  fortieth  anniversary  of  the  Judicial 
Law,  which  was  promulgated  on  the  26.  of  December,  1864. 
Large  meetings  of  lawyers  (avocats),  followed  by  banquets,  at 
which  all  professions  of  "intellectuals  "  were  represented,  in- 
cluding members  of  the  magistracy  and,  occasionally,  of  the 
administration,  have  been  held  at  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow, 


4M-  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

Saratoff,  Minsk,  Tomsk,  and  so  on;  and  at  all  these  meetings 
the  programme  of  the  Zemstvos,  reinforced  by  strong  resolu- 
tions requiring  the  repeal  of  the  exceptional  state-of-siege 
law  and  condemning  the  whole  regime  under  which  Russia  is 
now,  was  voted  and  transmitted  to  the  Minister  of  the  Interior. 
At  Moscow  the  resolutions  passed  at  the  meeting  of  the  law- 
yers were  worded  very  strongly,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing characteristic  abstracts: 

"  (i)  The  fundamental  principles  of  Right,  expressed  in 
the  Judicial  Law  of  the  2d  of  December,  1864,  and  which 
recognize  only  such  a  form  of  State  life,  in  which  all  the  actions 
of  all  are  submitted  to  law,  equal  for  all,  and  applied  by  the 
Courts  with  no  regard  to  any  outside  influence,  are  incompati- 
ble with  the  principles  of  the  bureaucratic  lawlessness  which 
endeavors  to  take  hold  of  every  manifestation  of  life  and  to 
submit  it  to  its  uncontrolled  power.  .  .  .  (4)  The  princi- 
ple of  religious  tolerance,  proclaimed  in  this  law,  was  brought 
into  non-existence  by  a  series  of  by-laws  and  circulars,  by 
means  of  which  large  portions  of  the  population  were  placed 
into  special  categories,  and  deprived  of  important  personal, 
family  and  property  rights — and  this,  not  for  crimes  of  theirs, 
and  not  in  virtue  of  legal  sentences,  but  merely  for  the  ex- 
pression of  the  dictates  of  their  conscience,  and  by  mere  orders 
of  the  Administration.  ...  (7)  The  principle  of  an  inde- 
pendent Justice,  equal  for  all,  has  been  reduced  to  nought  by 
the  abolition  of  all  guarantees  of  independence";  and  the 
declaration  enumerates  the  main  by-laws  by  means  of  which 
this  purpose  was  achieved. 

And,  finally,  their  last  resolution  expresses  what  every 
educated  Russian  is  thinking,  while  at  the  same  time  it  con- 
tains a  reply  to  the  Tsar's  manifesto  of  April,  1903.  It  runs 
as  follows: 

"  It  appears  from  all  the  life  of  Russia  for  the  last  forty 
years  that  it  is  absolutely  hopeless  to  endeavor  to  introduce 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  415 

in  our  country  the  reign  of  Right,  so  long  as  the  arbitrary  rule 
of  bureaucracy  continues  to  exist,  even  though  all  sorts  of 
rights  may  be  inscribed  in  our  code." 

Nothing  short  of  a  thorough  reform  in  the  fundamental  laws 
of  the  State  can  secure  the  ends  of  justice  and  law — such  is 
the  conclusion  of  the  Moscow  lawyers. 

Striking  facts  were  produced  at  these  meetings.  Thus, 
the  following  figures  just  published  by  The  Messenger  of  Law 
will  illustrate  the  lawlessness  which  prevails  under  Nicholas 
the  Second  in  all  matters  concerning  political  offences.  From 
1894  till  1901,  not  one  single  political  affair  was  brought  be- 
fore a  court  of  justice  or  an  examining  magistrate.  All  in- 
quests were  dealt  with  by  police  officers  or  functionaries  of  the 
Ministry  of  the  Interior.  As  to  the  numbers  of  such  cases, 
they  are  simply  extravagant.  Thus  in  1903  no  fewer  than 
1988  political  cases,  concerning  5590  persons,  were  opened, 
in  addition  to  all  those  which  were  pending.  In  the  same 
year,  1522  inquests,  involving  6450  persons,  were  terminated. 
Out  of  this  number  1583  persons  were  liberated,  45  were  sent 
before  courts-martial,  and  no  fewer  than  4867  persons  were 
submitted  to  various  penalties,  including  imprisonment,  inflicted 
by  the  Administration,  without  the  interference  of  any  magis- 
trate. Out  of  these,  no  fewer  than  1502  were  sent  into  exile,  for 
terms  up  to  ten  years,  to  various  remote  provinces  of  Russia 
and  Siberia!  Nothing  on  this  scale  was  done  even  under 
Alexander  the  Third,  the  corresponding  figure  for  the  last 
year  of  his  reign  being  only  55  (in  1894). 

The  Judicial  Law  of  1864  contained  certain  guarantees 
against  the  arbitrary  action  of  the  police.  But,  as  has  been 
indicated  during  the  last  few  days,  already  in  1870  and  1875 
the  preliminary  inquest  was  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  inde- 
pendent examining  magistrates  and  was  handed  to  the  ordinary 
police  and  the  State  police  officers.  No  fewer  than  seven 
hundred  by-laws  have  been  issued  since  1864  for  tearing  the 


416  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

Judicial  Law  to  pieces — limiting  the  rights  of  the  courts, 
abolishing  trial  by  jury  in  numerous  cases,  and  so  on;  so  that — 
to  use  the  expression  of  the  SaratofT  lawyers'  meeting — "all 
the  principles  of  the  law  of  Alexander  the  Second  have  been 
annihilated.  This  law  exists  only  in  name." 

At  the  same  time  the  exceptional  laws  promulgated  dur- 
ing the  last  two  reigns  have  given,  to  every  police  officer,  L. 
every  province  of  the  Empire,  the  right  to  arrest  every  Rus- 
sian subject  without  warrant,  and  to  keep  him  imprisoned  as 
a  suspect  for  seven  days — and  much  longer  under  various  other 
pretexts — without  incurring  any  responsibility.  More  than 
that.  It  was  publicly  vouched  at  one  of  the  lawyers'  meetings 
that  when  arrests  are  made  en  masse,  simple  policemen  receive 
in  advance  printed  and  signed  warrants  of  arrest  and  search- 
ing, on  which  they  have  only  to  inscribe  the  names  of  the  per- 
sons whom  they  choose  to  arrest!  Let  me  add  that  all  these 
resolutions  and  comments  have  been  printed  in  full,  in  both 
the  provincial  and  the  Moscow  papers,  and  that  the  figures 
are  those  of  official  reports. 

At  St.  Petersburg  the  fortieth  anniversary  of  the  Judicial' 
Law  was  celebrated  by  nearly  700  persons — lawyers,  literary 
people,  and  so  on — and  their  resolutions  were  equally  outspoken. 

"The  martyrology  of  the  Judicial  Law  (they  said)  is  a 
striking  illustration  of  the  fact  that  under  the  autocratic  and 
bureaucratic  regime  which  prevails  in  Russia  the  most  ele- 
mentary conditions  of  a  regular  civil  life  cannot  be  realised, 
and  partial  reforms  of  the  present  structure  of  the  State  would 
not  attain  their  aim." 

The  Assembly  confirmed  therefore  the  resolutions  of  the 
Zemstvo  representatives,  only  wording  the  chief  ones  still 
more  definitely,  in  the  following  term's: 

"3.  That  all  laws  be  made  and  taxes  established  only  with 
the  participation  and  the  consent  of  representatives,  freely 
elected  by  all  the  nation. 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  417 

"4.  That  the  responsibility  of  the  Ministers  before  the 
Assembly  of  Representatives  of  the  nation  should  be  intro- 
duced, in  order  to  guarantee  the  legality  of  the  actions  and 
the  orders  of  the  Administration." 

For  this  purpose,  and  in  view  of  the  extremely  difficult 
conditions  in  which  the  country  is  now  involved,  the  Assembly 
demanded  the  immediate  convocation  of  a  Constituent  As- 
sembly, freely  elected  by  the  people,  and  a  complete  and 
unconditional  amnesty  for  all  political  and  religious  offences, 
as  well  as  measures  guaranteeing  the  freedom  and  the  responsi- 
bility of  responsible  elections,  and  also  the  inviolability  of  the 
representatives  of  the  people.  This  declaration  was  signed 
by  673  persons,  and  sent  to  the  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

The  anniversary  meetings  of  the  Judicial  Law  being  over, 
the  agitation  has  already  taken  a  new  form.  It  is  the  munici- 
palities, beginning  with  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg,  which 
now  pass  the  same  resolutions.  They  ask  for  the  abolition 
of  the  exceptional  laws  and  for  the  convocation  of  a  represen- 
tative Assembly,  and  they  insist  upon  holding  a  general  con- 
ference of  representatives  of  all  the  Russian  cities  and  towns, 
which  would  certainly  express  the  same  desires. 

It  is  evident  that  the  reactionary  party  is  also  at  work, 
and  a  meeting  of  reactionists  took  place  at  the  house  of 
Pobiedonostseff,  in  order  to  discuss  how  to  put  a  stop  to  the 
constitutional  movement.  They  will  leave,  of  course,  not 
a  stone  unturned  to  influence  the  Tsar  in  this  direction,  and, 
to  begin  with,  they  hit  upon  the  idea  of  convoking  meetings 
of  the  nobility  in  different  provinces.  They  expected  that 
such  meetings  would  vote  against  a  Constitution.  But,  be- 
ginning with  Moscow,  they  met  with  a  complete  fiasco ;  the  Mos- 
cow nobility  adopted  the  same  resolutions  as  the  Zemstvos. 
More  than  that.  A  new  movement  was  set  on  foot,  in  the 
old  capital,  in  the  same  direction.  A  few  days  ago,  at  a  meet- 
ing of  the  Moscow  Agricultural  Society,  one  of  the  members 

27 


4i 8  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

proposed  a  resolution  demanding  the  abolition  of  the  excepc- 
ional  state-of-seige  law  promulgated  in  1881.  He  met  with 
some  opposition,  but'  after  brilliant  speeches  had  been  pro- 
nounced in  support  of  the  resolution  it  was  voted  with  only 
one  dissentient. 

One  may  expect  now  that  many  other  societies,  economic 
and  scientific,  will  follow  the  example  of  the  Moscow  agricul- 
turists. In  the  meantime  the  public  libraries,  both  municipal 
and  supported  by  private  contributions,  have  inaugurated 
a  movement  for  demanding  a  release  from  the  rigours  of  cen- 
sorship. There  is  in  Russia  a  special  censorship  for  the  libraries, 
and  even  out  of  those  books  which  have  been  published  in 
Russia  with  the  consent  of  the  censorship  many  works,  chiefly 
historical  and  political,  are  not  permitted  to  be  kept  in  the 
circulating  libraries.  The  Smolensk  public  library  has  now 
petitioned  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  asking  for  the  abolition 
of  these  restrictions,  and  this  petition  is  sure  to  be  followed 
by  many  others  of  a  similar  kind,  the  more  so  as  simply  pro- 
hibitive restrictions  are  imposed  upon  the  village  libraries, 
the  public  lectures,  and,  in  fact,  in  the  whole  domain  of  popu- 
lar education. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  all  the  above  resolutions  the 
form  to  be  given  to  the  representative  government  has  not 
yet  been  defined.  Must  Russia  have  two  houses  or  one? 
Will  she  have  seven  or  nine  Parliaments  (like  Canada)  and  a 
Federal  Senate  ?  What  extension  is  to  be  given  to  the  federa- 
tive principle?  And  so  on.  All  these  matters  have  not  yet 
been  discussed  in  detail.  It  is  only  known  that  some  Zemstvo 
delegates,  under  the  presidency  of  M.  Shipoff,  are  discussing 
these  vital  questions.  However,  as  the  Zemstvos  exist  in 
thirty-four  provinces  only,  out  of  fifty,  of  European  Russia 
proper,  and  there  are  besides  Finland,  Poland,  the  Caucasus, 
Siberia,  Turkestan,  and  the  Steppe  Region,  no  scheme  of 
representative  government  can  be  worked  out  without  the 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  419 

consent  of  these  units.  This  is  why  the  idea  of  a  Constituent 
Assembly  is  gaining  ground.  All  that  can  be  said  in  the  mean- 
time is,  that  the  Jacobinist  ideas  of  the  centralisers  find  but 
little  sympathy  in  Russia,  and  that,  on  the  contrary,  the  pre- 
vailing idea  is  that  of  a  federation,  with  full  home  rule  for  its 
jomponent  parts  of  which  Finnish  home  rule  may  be  taken 
as  a  practical  illustration. 

Such  are,  then,  up  to  the  i8th  of  December,  the  main 
facts  of  the  constitutional  agitation  which  is  going  on  in  Rus- 
sia. And  from  all  sides  we  hear  the  same  questions:  Is  it 
really  the  end  of  autocracy  that  is  coming?  Is  Russia  going 
to  pass  from  autocracy  to  representative  government,  without 
a  revolution  similar  to  that  of  1789  to  1793  in  France?  Is  the 
present  movement  deep  enough  to  attain  its  goal?  And, 
again,  are  the  Tsar  and  his  nearest  advisers  prepared  to  make 
the  necessary  concessions,  without  being  compelled  to  do  so 
by  popular  uprisings  and  internal  commotions? 

First  of  all,  let  it  be  well  understood  that  there  is  nothing 
unforeseen  in  the  demand  of  a  Constitution,  so  unanimously 
expressed  by  the  representatives  of  provincial  self-govern- 
ment. Over  and  over  again,  for  the  last  forty  years,  they  have 
expressed  the  same  desire,  and  it  is  for  the  third  or  fourth 
time  that  they  now  address  similar  demands  to  the  Emperor. 
They  did  it  in  1880-1881.  They  repeated  it  in  1894,  as  soon 
as  Nicholas  the  Second  came  to  the  throne,  and  again  in  1902 
in  connection  with  the  committees  on  the  depression  of  agri- 
culture. At  the  beginning  of  this  year,  when  the  war  broke 
out  and  the  Zemstvos  decided  to  send  their  own  field-hospitals 
to  the  seat  of  war  (these  hospitals,  by  the  way,  are  described 
as  the  best  in  Manchuria),  representatives  of  all  the  Zemstvos 
demanded  the  permission  to  meet  together,  to  agree  upon 
joint  action  in  the  organization  of  relief  for  the  wounded,  as 
well  as  foi  the  families  of  the  Reservists.  On  both  occasions 
the  authorization  was  refused  and  the  meetings  forbidden; 


420  THE  MASSACRE  AT- ST.  PETERSBURG 

but  on  both  occasions  the  Zemstvo  delegates  held  secret  con- 
ferences at  Moscow  and  discussed  their  affairs  in  spite  of  the 
menaces  of  Plehve  (Shipoff  went  for  that  into  exile) .  And  in 
both  cases  they  concluded  that  the  convocation  of  a  National 
Assembly  had  become  an  imperative  necessity.  The  present 
move  is  thus  a  further  development  of  several  former  ones 
It  is  the  expression  of  a  long-felt  need. 

The  necessity  of  a  representative  government  for  Russia 
was  spoken  of  immediately  after  the  death  of  Nicholas  the 
First,  and  we  are  informed  by  Prince  Tatischeff  (Alexander 
the  Second  and  his  Times)  that  as  early  as  in  1856  Alexander 
the  Second  had  had  a  plan  of  a  Constitution  worked  out. 
However,  precedence  had  to  be  given  then  to  the  abolition  of 
serfdom  and  the  terrible  corporal  punishment  then  in  use 
(which  meant  a  judicial  reform);  besides,  some  sort  of  local 
self-government  had  first  to  be  created.  These  reforms  .filled 
up  the  years  1859-1866.  But  in  the  meantime  the  Polish 
revolution  broke  out  (in  1863),  and  it  was  then  believed  at  the 
Russian  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs  that  the  uprising  was 
supported  by  promises  of  intervention  given  to  its  leaders  by 
the  Western  Powers. 

This  revolution  had  the  worst  imaginable  consequences 
for  Russia.  It  closed  the  reform  period.  Reaction  set  in — 
the  reaction  which  has  lasted  up  to  the  present  day,  and  which 
has  cost  Russia  hecatombs  of  her  best  and  most  devoted  men 
and  women.  All  schemes  of  constitutional  changes  were 
abandoned,  and  we  learn  from  the  same  author  that  the  reason 
which  Alexander  the  Second  gave  for  this  abandonment  was 
his  fear  for  the  integrity  of  the  Empire.  He  came  to  Moscow 
in  1865,  and  there,  at  his  Iliynsky  Palace,  he  received  Goloh- 
vastofE — that  same  President  of  Nobility  in  one  of  the  districts 
of  the  Moscow  province  wrho  had  forwarded  to  the  Tsar  an 
address,  in  the  name  of  the  nobility  he  represented,  demand- 
ing a  Constitution.  The  words  which  Alexander  is  reported 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  421 

to  have  said  to  Golohvastorf  during  the  interview  are  most 
characteristic:  "I  give  you  my  word,"  he  said,  "that  on  this 
same  table  I  would  sign  any  Constitution  you  like  if  I  were 
sure  that  this  would  be  for  the  good  of  Russia.  But  I  know 
that  if  I  did  it  to-day,  to-morrow  Russia  would  go  to  pieces. 
And  you  do  not  desire  such  an  issue.  Last  year  you  your- 
selves (the  Moscow  nobility)  told  me  that,  and  you  were  the 
first  to  say  so."  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  authenticity 
of  these  words.  They  are  just  what  Alexander  the  Second 
would  have  said,  and  while  he  was  uttering  them  he  was  quite 
sincere.  But,  as  I  have  explained  in  my  Memoirs,  his  was  a 
very  complicated  nature,  and  while  the  menace  of  the  West- 
ern Powers,  ready  to  favor  the  dismemberment  of  the  Em- 
pire, must  have  strongly  impressed  him,  the  Autocrat  also 
spoke  in  him,  and  still  more  so  the  man  who  demanded  above 
all  to  be  trusted  implicitly.  On'  this  last  point  he  was  ex- 
tremely -  sensitive . 

Be  that  as  it  may,  the  idea  of  giving  Russia  a  Constitution 
was  temporarily  abandoned ;  but  it  cropped  up  again  ten  years 
later.  The  great  movement  "  towards  the  people ' '  was  then 
in  full  swing,  The  prisons  were  overflowing  with  political 
prisoners,  and  a  series  of  political  trials,  which  had  taken 
place  with  open  doors,  had  produced  a  deep  impression  on  the 
public.  Thereupon  Alexander  the  Second  handed  in  a  scheme 
of  a  Constitution,  to  be  reported  upon  to  the  Professor  of  Civil 
Law  and  the  author  of  a  book  much  spoken  of  on  this  subject — 
K.  P.  Pobiedonostseff! 

What  the  appreciations  of  Pobiedonostseff  were,  we  do 
not  know;  but,  as  he  has  expressed  his  views  on  representa- 
tive government  in  a  number  of  works,  we  may  be  certain  that 
his  report  was  negative.  His  ideal  is  a  Church,  as  strongly 
organised  as  the  Catholic  Church,  permeating  all  the  life  of 
society  and  assuming,  if  need  be,  a  fighting  attitude  against 
the  rival  Churches.  Freedom  and  Parliamentary  rule  are  the 


422  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

enemies  of  such  a  Church;  consequently,  he  concludes,  autoc- 
racy must  be  maintained ;  and  Russia  is  predestined  to  realise 
the  happiness  of  the  people  under  the  rod  of  the  Church.  The 
worst  was  that  Pobiedonostseff  succeeded  for  years  in  main- 
taining a  reputation  for  honesty,  and  only  lately  has  it  become 
evident  that,  although  he  does  not  care  for  wealth,  he  cherishes 
power  and  is  most  unscrupulous  as  to  the  means  by  which  he 
maintains  his  influence  at  Court. 

In  1876  Alexander  the  Second  was  thus  besieged  with 
doubts.  But  then  came  the  uprising  in  Servia,  the  Turkish 
War,  the  Berlin  Treaty,  and  once  more  the  inner  reforms  were 
postponed.  The  Turkish  War  revealed,  however,  such  depths 
of  disorganisation  in  the  State  machine  that,  once  it  was  over, 
the  time  had  apparently  come  for  making  a  serious  move  in 
the  constitutional  direction.  Discontent  was  general,  and 
when  the  trial  of  The  Hundred  and  Ninety-three  began  at 
the  end  of  1878,  and  full  reports  of  it  were  given  in  the  papers, 
the  sympathies  of  the  educated  classes  went  all  in  favor 
of  the  accused,  and  all  against  their  accusers.  The  moment 
was  opportune;  but  one  of  those  omnipotent  functionaries 
who  had  been  nurtured  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  Winter  Palace, 
Trepoff,  gave  a  different  turn  to  affairs. 

The  history  of  the  years  1878-1881  is  so  fresh  in  the  memo- 
ries of  all  that  it  need  not  be  retold.  How,  immediately  after 
the  excitement  produced  at  St.  Petersburg  by  the  above  trial,1 
Trepoff,  the  head  of  the  St.  Petersburg  Police,  ordered  one  of 
the  "politicals"  to  be  flogged  in  prison;  how  thereupon  Vera 
Zasulitch  shot  at  Trepoff,  and  wounded  him;  how  Alexander 
the  Second,  inspired  by  the  Chief  of  the  State  Police,  Mezent- 
soff,  revised  the  relatively  mild  sentences  pronounced  by  the 
Court  in  the  trial  of  The  Hundred  and  Ninety- three,  and 
rendered  them  very  much  heavier;  how  in  reply  to  this,  Mez- 
entsoff  was  killed  in  broad  daylight ;  and  how  this  was  the  be- 
ginning of  a  fearful  struggle  between  the  Government  and 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  423 

the  revolutionists,  which  ended  in  a  wholesale  slaughter  and 
transportation  to  Siberia  of  the  best  elements  of  a  whole  gen- 
eration, including  children  sixteen  years  old,  and  in  Alexander 
the  Second  losing  his  life — all  this  is  well  known.  It  is  alsp 
known  that  he  was  killed  the  very  day  that  he  made  a  timid 
and  belated  concession  to  public  opinion  by  deciding  to  sub- 
mit to  the  State  Council  a  scheme  for  the  convocation  of  an 
Assemblee  des  Notables. 

This  scheme  is  often  described  as  a  Constitution.  But 
Alexander  the  Second  himself  never  attributed  to  it  this  mean- 
ing. The  proposal  of  Loris  Melikoff,  which  received  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Tsar  on  the  iyth  of  February  (March  i),  1881, 
consisted  in  this :  the  Ministries  were  to  bring  together  by  the 
next  autumn  all  the  materials  which  they  possessed  concerning 
the  reorganization  of  the  Central  Government.  Then  special 
Committees,  composed  of  representatives  of  the  different 
Ministries,  as  well  as  of  persons  invited  by  the  Government 
for  this  purpose,  would  prepare  schemes  for  reform  of  the 
Central  Government  "within  the  limits  which  would  be  indi- 
cated by  the  Emperor."  These  schemes,  before  submitting 
them  to  the  State  Council,  would  be  discussed  by  a  general 
Commission  composed  as  follows:  (a)  Persons  nominated  by 
the  Emperor  out  of  members  of  the  above  Committees;  (6) 
delegates  from  the  'provinces  in  which  the  Zemstvos  have  been 
introduced — two  delegates  per  province,  elected  by  the  pro- 
vincial Zemstvos — as  also  delegates  from  a  few  important 
cities;  and  (c)  members  nominated  by  the  Government  to 
represent  the  provinces  which  had  no  Zemstvo  institutions. 
Only  the  members  mentioned  under  (a)  would  have  the  right 
of  voting;  the  others,  (6)  and  (c),  would  only  express  their 
opinions,  but  not  vote.  The  Commission  itself  would  have 
no  legislative  power;  its  resolutions  would  be  submitted  to 
the  State  Council  and  the  Emperor  in  the  usual  way. 

This  measure  had  to  be  made  public,  and  on  the  ist  (i3th) 


424  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

of  March,  Alexander  the  Second  approved  the  draft  of  a  mani- 
festo which  had  to  be  issued  to  this  effect.  He  only  desired 
it  to  be  read  at  a  meeting  of  the  Committee  of  the  Ministers 
on  the  following  Wednesday.  He  was  killed,  as  is  well  known, 
a  few  hours  later,  and  the  next  Committee  of  Ministers,  which 
took  place  on  the  8th  (2oth)  of  March,  was  presided  over  by 
his  son,  Alexander  the  Third.  The  meeting  fully  approved 
the  manifesto,  which  had  now  only  to  be  printed.  But  Alex- 
ander the  Third  hesitated.  Old  Wilhelm  the  First  had  advised 
him  to  yield;  but  the  reactionary  party,  headed  by  Pobied- 
onostseff  and  Katkoff,  was  very  active  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection. Katkoff  was  called  from  Moscow  to  exert  a  pressure 
on  the  Tsar  by  the  side  of  PobiedonostsefF,  and  Alexander 
was  easily  persuaded  by  Count  Ignatieff  and  such  a  specialist 
in  police  matters  as  the  Prefet  of  Paris.  M.  Andrieux,  that  the 
revolutionary  movement  could  easily  be  crushed.  Whilst 
all  this  was  going  on  the  Liberal  Ministers,  who  were  in  favor 
of  constitutional  reforms,  undertook  nothing  decisive,  and 
Alexander  the  Third,  who  had  already  written  to  his  brother: 
"  I  feel  so  happy:  the  weight  is  off  my  shoulders,  I  am  granting 
a  Constitution,"  yielded  the  other  way.  On  the  2pth  of  April 
(nth  of  May),  he  issued  his  autocratic  manifesto,  written  by 
Pobiedonostseff , in  which  he  declared:  "Amidst  our  affliction 
the  voice  of  God  orders  us  to  vigorously  take  the  ruling  power 
in  our  own  hands,  with  faith  in  Providence  and  trust  in  the 
truth  and  might  of  the  Autocratic  Power  which  we  are  called 
upon  to  reinforce  and  to  protect  against  all  attacks,  for  the 
welfare  of  the  nation." 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  this  personal  power  was  the  pro- 
mulgation of  that  state-of -siege  law  which,  as  we  saw,  handed 
all  classes  of  Russia  to  the  now  omnipotent  police  officials, 
and  made  of  Russia  one  great  State  prison.  Thus  began  those 
gloomy  years  1881-1894,  of  which  none  of  those  who  lived 
them  through  can  think  otherwise  than  as  of  a  nightmare. 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  425 

To  tell  the  truth,  Alexander  the  Third  was  not  exactly  a 
despot  in  his  heart,  although  he  acted  like  one.  Under  the 
influence  of  the  Slavophile,  Konstantin  Aksakoff,  he  had 
come  to  believe  that  the  mission  of  autocracy  in  Russia  is  to 
give  a  certain  well-being  to  the  peasants,  which  could  never  be 
attained  under  a  representative  government.  Towards  the 
?nd  of  his  life  he  even  used  to  say  that  there  were  only  two 
thorough  Socialists,  Henry  the  Fourth  and  himself.  What 
induced  him  to  say  so  I  do  not  know.  At  any  rate,  when  he 
came  to  the  throne  he  adopted  a  programme  which  was  ex- 
plained in  a  French  review,  in  an  article  generally  attributed 
to  Turgueneff.  Its  main  points  were:  a  considerable  reduc- 
tion of  the  redemption  tax  which  the  ex-serfs  paid  for  their 
liberation;  a  radical  change  in  the  system  of  imperial  taxation, 
including  the  abolition  of  the  "poll-tax,"  and  the  excise  on 
salt;  measures  facilitating  both  the  temporary  migrations  of 
the  peasants  and  emigration  to  the  Urals  and  Siberia;  rural 
banks,  and  so  on.  Most  of  these  measures  were  carried 
through  during  his  reign;  but  in  return  the  peasants  were  de- 
prived of  some  of  the  most  elementary  personal  and  civil  rights 
which  they  had  obtained  under  Alexander  the  Second.  Suf- 
fice it  to  say  that  instead  of  the  Justices  of  the  Peace,  formerly 
elected  by  all  the  population,  special  police  officers,  nominated 
by  the  Governors,  were  introduced,  and  they  were  endowed 
with  the  most  unlimited  rights  over  the  village  communities, 
and  over  every  peasant  individually.  Flogging,  as  in  the 
times  of  serfdom,  was  made  once  more  an  instrument  of  "edu- 
cating' '  the  peasants.  Every  rural  policeman  became  a  governor 
of  his  village.  The  majority  of  the  schools  were  handed  over  to 
Pobiedonostseff.  As  to  the  Zemstvos,  not  only  were  they 
gradually  transformed  more  and  more  into  mere  boards  of 
administration  under  the  local  Governor,  but  the  peasants 
were  deprived  of  the  representation  which  they  hitherto  had 
in  that  institution.  The  police  officers  became  even  more 


426  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

omnipotent  than  ever.  If  a  dozen  schoolmasters  came  to- 
gether they  were  treated  as  conspirators.  The  reforms  of 
1861-1866  were  treated  as  the  work  of  rank  revolutionists, 
and  the  very  name  of  Alexander  the  Second  became  suspect. 
Never  can  a  foreigner  realize  the  darkness  of  the  cloud  which 
hung  over  Russia  during  that  unfortunate  reign.  It  is  only 
through  the  deep  note  of  despair  sounded  in  the  novels  atid 
sketches  of  Tchekoff  and  several  of  his  contemporaries — "  the 
men  of  the  eighties ' '  —that  one  can  get  a  faint  idea  of  that 
gloom. 

However,  man  always  hopes,  and  as  soon  as  Nicholas  the 
Second  came  to  the  throne  new  hopes  were  awakened.  I 
have  spoken  of  these  hopes  already  in  previous  articles,  and 
shown  how  soon  they  faded  away.  Since  then  Nicholas  the 
Second  has  not  shown  the  slightest  desire  to  repair  any  one  of 
the  grave  faults  of  his  father,  but  he  has  added  very  many 
new  ones. 

Everywhere  he  and  his  Ministers  have  bred  discontent- 
in  Finland,  in  Poland,  in  Armenia  (by  plundering  the  Armenian 
Church),  in  Georgia,  in  the  Zemstvos,  among  all  those  who  are 
interested  in  education,  among  the  students — in  fact,  every- 
where. But  that  is  not  all.  There  is  one  striking  feature  in 
this  reign.  All  these  last  ten  years  there  has  been  no  lack  of 
forces  which  endeavored  to  induce  the  ruler  of  Russia  to 
adopt  a  better  policy;  and  all  through  these  ten  years  he 
himself — so  weak  for  good — found  the  force  to  resist  them. 
At  the  decisive  moment  he  always  had  enough  energy  to  turn 
the  scales  in  favor  of  reaction  by  throwing  in  the  weight  of 
his  own  personal  will.  Every  time  he  interfered  in  public 
matters — be  it  in  the  student  affairs,  in  Finland,  or  when  he 
spoke  so  insolently  to  the  Zemstvo  delegates  on  his  advent  to 
the  throne — every  time  his  interference  was  for  bad. 

However,  already  during  the  great  strikes  of  1895,  and 
still  more  so  during  the  student  disturbances  of  1897,  i 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  427 

become  apparent  that  the  old  regime  could  not  last  long.  Not- 
withstanding all  prosecutions,  a  quite  new  Russia  had  come 
into  existence  since  1881.  In  the  seventies  it  was  only  the 
youth  which  revolted  against  the  old  regime.  In  our  circles 
a  man  of  thirty  was  an  old  man.  In  1897  men  of  all  ages, 
even  men  like  Prince  Viazemskiy,  member  of  the  Council  of 
State,  or  the  Union  of  Writers,  and  thousands  of  elderly  men 
scattered  all  over  the  country,  joined  in  a  unanimous  protest 
against  the  autocratic  bureaucracy. 

It  was  then  that  Witte  began  to  prepare  the  gradual  pas- 
sage from  autocracy  to  some  sort  of  a  constitutional  regime. 
His  commissions  on  the  Impoverishment  of  Agriculture  in 
Central  Russia  were  evidently  meant  to  supply  that  inter- 
mediate step.  In  every  district  of  the  thirty-four  provinces 
which  have  the  Zemstvo  institutions,  Committees,  composed 
of  the  Zemstvos  and  of  local  men  invited  ad  hoc,  were  asked  to 
discuss  the  causes  of  this  impoverishment.  Most  remarkable 
things  were  said  in  these  Committees,  by  noblemen  and  func- 
tionaries, and  especially  by  simple  peasants — all  coming  to 
one  conclusion:  Russia  cannot  continue  to  exist  under  the 
police  rule  which  was  inaugurated  in  1881.  Political  liberties 
and  representative  government  have  become  a  most  urgent 
necessity.  "We  have  something  to  say  about  our  needs,  and 
we  will  say  it "  —this  was  what  peasant  and  landlord  alike  said 
in  these  Commissions.  The  convocation  of  an  assembly  of  the 
representatives  of  all  provinces  of  Russia  had  thus  become 
unavoidable.  But  then  Nicholas  the  Second,  under  the  instiga- 
tion and  with  the  connivance  of  Plehve,  made  his  little  coup 
d'etat.  Witte  was  shelved  in  the  Council  of  State,  and  Plehve 
became  an  omnipotent  satrap.  However,  it  is  now  known 
that  in  1902  Plehve  had  handed  to  Nicholas  the  Second  a 
memoir  in  which  he  accused  Witte  of  preparing  a  revolution 
movement  in  Russia,  and  already  then  the  Tsar  had  decided 
in  his  mind  to  get  rid  of  Witte  and  his  Commissions.  This 


423  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

he  did,  handing  Russia  to  that  man  whom  the  worst  reaction- 
ists despised,  even  though  they  called  upon  him  to  be  their 
savior. 

An  orgy  of  insolent  police  omnipotence  now  began:  the 
wholesale  deportation  of  all  discontents;  massacres  of  the 
Jews,  of  which  the  instigators,  such  as  the  Moldavian  Krushe- 
van,  editor  of  the  Bessarabets,  were  under  the  personal  pro- 
tection of  the  Minister;  an  orgy  of  wholesale  bribery,  general 
corruption,  and  intimidation.  And  Nicholas  the  Second  had 
not  one  word  to  say  against  that  man!  Only  now,  when 
Plehve's  successors  have  brought  to  the  Tsar  the  copies  of  all 
his  Majesty's  correspondence  with  the  Grand  Dukes,  which 
Plehve  opened  and  had  carefully  copied  for  some  unknown 
purpose — only  now  they  go  about  in  the  Winter  Palace  ex- 
claiming "It  is  Plehve  who  is  the  cause  of  that  agitation!  It 
is  he  who  has  brought  upon  us  all  this  odium ! "  As  if  Plehve 
was  not  their  last  hope — the  last  card  of  autocracy.  Truly 
has  the  lawyer  Korobchevsky  said  before  the  Court,  in  defence 
of  his  client  Sazonoff:  "The  bomb  which  killed  the  late  Minister 
of  the  Interior  was  filled,  not  with  dynamite,  but  with  the 
burning  tears  of  the  mothers,  sisters,  wives,  and  daughters, 
of  the  men  whom  he  sent  to  the  gallows  or  to  die  slowly  in 
prison  or  in  Siberia!" 

But  who  are  these  new  men  of  the  Zemstvos — it  will  be 
asked — who  come  now  so  prominently  to  the  front  ?  Are  they 
capable  of  playing  the  responsible  part  which  history  seems  to 
bestow  upon  them? 

When  provincial  self-government  was  introduced  forty 
years  ago  there  certainly  was  among  the  promoters  of  this 
reform  some  sort  of  idea  like  this :  "  Let  the  landlords,  the  mer- 
chants, the  peasants,  familiarize  themselves,  through  the  pro- 
vincial and  the  district  assemblies,  with  representative  gov- 
ernment and  the  mangement  of  public  affairs."  This  is  also 
how  the  reform  was  understood  on  the  spot,  and  this  is  why 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  4*9 

the  Zemstvos  attracted  at  the  outset  so  many  of  the  best  pro- 
vincial forces. 

The  mode  of  composition  of  these  assemblies  is  original. 
Russia,  as  is  known,  is  divided  into  provinces,  and  each  prov- 
ince into  ten  to  twelve  districts.  Leaving  aside  Poland  (ten 
provinces),  Finland  (which  is  its  own  Parliament),  Caucasia 
and  Asiatic  Russia  (Siberia),  Turkestan,  the  Steppe  Region, 
European  Russia  is  divided  into  fifty  provinces,  out  of  which 
thirty-four  have  now  the  institution  of  the  Zemstvo.  This 
means  that  in  these  provinces  each  district  has  an  assembly, 
elected  by  all  the  inhabitants,  for  the  management  of  quite  a 
number  of  local  matters.  Each  assembly  nominates  its  own 
executive,  and  all  the  district  assemblies  nominate  a  Provincial 
Assembly,  which  also  has  its  executive,  and  is  presided  over 
by  the  provincial  President  of  the  Nobility.  The  towns  have 
their  own  municipal  government.  The  district  elections,  how- 
ever, are  made  separately  by  the  three  orders — the  nobility, 
the  mixed  landowners  (merchants  and  peasant  proprietors), 
and  the  peasants  belonging  to  the  village  communities.  Be- 
sides, as  the  foundation  of  the  electoral  rights  is  the  value  of 
landed  property  owned  by  each  person  in  the  district,  and  the 
nobility  are  the  chief  landowners,  the  result  is  that  in  most 
assemblies  the  number  of  peasant  representatives  is  inferior 
to  those  of  the  other  two  orders  taken  together.  Only  in  cer- 
tain north-eastern  provinces  such  as  Vyatka  have  the  peasants 
a  dominating  voice.  This  is,  at  least,  how  the  Zemstvos  were 
constituted  till  1890,  when  the  would-be  "Peasant  Tsar" 
further  reduced  the  number  of  peasant  delegates. 

It  would  seem  that  under  such  an  organization  the  Zemst- 
vos would  soon  become  mere  administrative  boards,  on  which 
the  country  squires  would  find  a  number  of  well-paid  positions. 
So  it  was  indeed  at  the  outset  in  some  central  provinces,  where 
the  landlords  of  the  old  school  had  the  upper  hand.  But  on 
the  other  hand  there  were  also  provinces,  such  as  Tver  (an 


430  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

old  nest  of  ''Decembrists"), Voronezh,  Poltava,  partly  Ryazan, 
and  others,  in  which  the  nobility,  owing  to  various  circum- 
stances, took  the  lead  of  the  reform  movement.  In  these  prov- 
inces, as  also  in  the  northern-east  ones,  in  which  the  peasants 
dominate,  the  Zemstvos  became  an  active  force  for  introduc- 
ing in  the  villages  all  sorts  of  useful  institutions  on  a  demo- 
cratic basis.  These  two  sorts  of  Zemstvos  became  the  leaders 
of  the  others.  This  is  why,  notwithstanding  all  the  obstacles 
opposed  to  them  by  the  Central  Government,  the  Zemstvos, 
as  a  rule,  have  accomplished  something.  They  have  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  rational  system  of  popular  education.  They 
have  placed  sanitation  in  the  villages  on  a  sound  basis,  and 
worked  out  the  system  which  answers  best  the  purpose  of  free 
medical  help  for  the  peasants  and  the  laboring  classes.  They 
elected  Justices  of  Peace  who  were  decidedly  popular.  And 
some  of  the  Zemstvos  are  doing  good  work  by  spreading 
in  the  villages  better  methods  of  agriculture,  by  the  supply  of 
improved  machinery  at  cost  price,  by  spreading  co-operative 
workshops  and  creameries,  by  mutual  insurance,  by  intro- 
ducing school  gardens,  and  so  on.  All  this,  of  course,  within 
the  narrow  limits  imposed  by  the  present  economical  condi- 
tions, but  capable,  like  similar  beginnings  in  Western  Europe, 
of  a  considerable  extension. 

Another  important  feature  is  that  the  Zemstvos  draw 
into  their  service  a  considerable  number  of  excellent  men, 
truly  devoted  to  the  people,  who  in  their  turn  exercise  a  de- 
cided influence  upon  the  whole  of  the  Zemstvo  institution. 
Here  is  a  country  district  in  North- Western  Russia.  Its  dis- 
trict assembly  consists  of  twenty  noblemen  elected  by  the 
nobility,  one  deputy  from  the  clergy  (nominated  by  the  Church) 
one  functionary  of  the  Crown  (who  sits  by  right),  f  /e  depu- 
ties elected  by  the  second  order  of  mixed -landowners  (mer- 
chants, peasant  proprietors,  etc.),  and  nine  peasants  from 
the  third  order,  representing  the  village  communities.  They 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  431 

decide,  let  us  say,  to  open  a  number  of  village  schools.  But 
the  salaries  of  the  teachers  are  low,  the  schoolmasters'  houses 
are  poor  log-huts,  and  the  assembly  people  know  that  nobody 
but  a  "populist,"  who  loves  the  people  and  looks  upon  his 
work  as  upon  his  mission,  will  come  and  stay.  And  so  the 
"  populist ' '  comes  in  as  a  teacher.  But  it  is  the  same  with  the 
Zemstvo  doctor,  who  is  bound  to  attend  to  a  number  of  vil- 
lages. He  has  to  perform  an  incredible  amount  of  work,  trav- 
elling all  the  year  round,  every  day,  from  village  to  village, 
over  impassable  roads,  amidst  a  poverty  which  continually 
brings  him  to  despair — read  only  Tchekoff's  novels.  And, 
therefore,  nobody  but  a  "populist "  will  stay.  And  it  is  the 
same  with  the  midwife,  the  doctor's  aid,  the  agricultural  in- 
spector, the  co-operator,  and  so  on.  And  when  several  Zemst- 
vos  undertook,  with  their  limited  budgets,  to  make  house-to- 
house  statistical  inquests  in  the  villages,  whom  could  they 
find  but  devoted  "populists"  to  carry  on  the  work  and  build  up 
that  wonderful  monument,  the  450  volumes  of  the  Zemstvo 
inquests?  Read  (Ertel's  admirable  novel,  Changing  Guards, 
and  you  will  understand  the  force  which  these  teachers,  doc- 
tors and  statisticians  represent  in  a  province. 

The  more  the  Zemstvos  develop  their  activity,  the  more 
this  "third  element"  grows;  and  now  it  is  they — the  men  and 
women  on  the  spot,  who  toil  during  the  snowstorm  and  amidst 
a  typhus  stricken  population — who  speak  for  the  people  and 
make  the  Zemstvo  speak  and  act  for  it.  A  new  Russia  has 
grown  in  this  way.  And  this  Russia  hates  autocracy,  and 
makes  the  Zemstvos  hate  it  with  a  greater  hatred  than  any 
which  would  have  sprung  from  theories  borrowed  from  the 
West.  At  every  step  every  honest  man  of  the  Zemstvo  finds 
the  bureaucracy — dishonest,  ignorant,  and  arrogant — stand- 
ing in  his  way.  And  if  these  men  shout,  "  Down  with  autoc- 
racy!" it  is  because  they  know  by  experience  that  autocracy 
is  incompatible  with  real  progress. 


4;,2  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

These  are,  then,  the  various  elements  which  are  arraigned 
in  Russia  against  the  old  institutions.  Will  autocracy  yield, 
and  make  substantial  concessions — in  time,  because  time  plays 
an  immense  part  under  such  conditions  ?  This  we  do  not  know. 
But  that  they  never  will  be  able  any  more  to  stop  the  move- 
ment, this  is  certain.  It  is  said  that  they  think  at  the  Winter 
Palace  to  pass  a  few  measures  in  favor  of  the  peasants,  but 
to  avoid  making  any  constitutional  concessions.  However, 
this  will  not  help.  Any  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the 
peasants  will  be  welcome.  But  if  they  think  that  therefore 
they  will  be  able  to  limit  their  concessions  to  the  invitation  of 
a  few  representatives  of  the  provinces  to  the  Council  of  State, 
where  they  may  take  part  in  its  deliberations,  this  is  a  gross 
mistake.  Such  a  measure  might  have  pacified  the  minds  in 
1 88 1,  if  Alexander  the  Third  had  honestly  fulfilled  the  last 
will  of  his  father.  It  might  have  had,  perhaps,  some  slight 
effect  ten  years  ago,  if  Nicholas  the  Second  had  listened  then 
to  the  demand  of  the  Zemstvos.  But  now  this  will  do  no 
longer.  The  energy  of  the  forces  set  in  motion  is  too  great  to 
be  satisfied  with  such  a  trifling  result.  And  if  they  do  not 
make  concessions  very  soon,  the  Court  party  may  easily  learn 
the  lesson  which  Louis  Philippe  learned  in  the  last  days  of 
February,  1848.  In  those  days  the  situation  at  Paris  changed 
every  twenty-four  hours,  and  therefore  the  concessions  made 
by  the  Ministry  always  came  too  late.  Each  time  they  "an- 
swered no  longer  to  the  new  requirements. 

In  all  the  recent  discussions  nothing  has  yet  been  said 
about  the  terrible  economical  conditions  of  the  peasants  and 
the  working  men  in  the  factories.  All  the  resolutions  were 
limited  to  a  demand  of  political  rights,  and  thus  they  seem  to 
imply  that  the  leading  idea  of  the  agitation  was  to  obtain, 
first,  political  rights,  and  to  leave  the  discussion  of  the  economi- 
cal questions  to  the  future  representative  Government.  If 
this  were  so,  I  should  see  in  such  a  one-sidedness  the  weak 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  433 

point  of  the  agitation.  However,  we  have  already  in  the 
resolutions  of  the  committees  on  the  Impoverishment  of  Cen- 
tral Russia  a  wide  programme  of  changes,  required  by  the 
peasants  themselves  and  it  would  be  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance to  circulate  this  programme  at  once  in  the  villages. 

Early  in  December  it  was  found  that  the  Czar  intended 
to  do  nothing  for  the  Zemstvos,  and  he  decreed  that  there 
should  be  no  elections  of  a  body  to  have  a  hand  in  the  Govern- 
ment. He  furthermore  severely  rebuked  the  president  of  the 
Chirnogov  Zemstvos,  saying: 

'  I  consider  the  request  of  the  president  of  the  Assembly 
of  Chirnogov  arrogant  and  tactless.  It  is  not  the  business  of  a 
meeting  of  Zemstvos  to  occupy  themselves  with  questions 
concerning  the  administration  of  the  Empire.  The  sphere 
of  such  assemblages  is  clearly  defined  by  law." 

This  clear  indication  of  his  utter  disregard  of  the  Zemst- 
vos brought  about  the  crisis  of  January,  1905.  The  Zemstvos 
were  forced  to  give  up  the  struggle,  and  many  of  the  members 
returned  to  their  homes.  Although  the  Emperor  had  shown 
himself  favorable  to  a  more  liberal  regime,  his  action  did  not 
cause  a  great  deal  of  surprise,  and  the  plans  of  the  heads  of 
the  reform  movement  went  along  toward  perfection. 

An  imperial  manifesto  in  reply  to  the  Zemstvo  request 
for  representation  in.  the  government  was  made  on  December 
26.  Several  days  preceding  this,  the  Czar  had  returned  cer- 
tain resolutions  submitted  to  him  by  several  Zemstvos  with 
an  indorsement  that  questions  of  state  administration  are  of 
no  legal  concern  to  the  Zemstvos.  In  his  manifesto,  the  Em- 
peror ignored  entirely  the  demand  for  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment, but  announced  in  the  most  definite  and  authoritative 
way,  that  the  Russian  Government  was  to  remain  autocratiCc 
He  pledged  himself  to  care  for  the  needs  of  the  country,  "dis- 
tinguishing between  all  that  is  real  in  the  interests  of  the  Rus- 
sian people  and  tendencies  not  seldom  mistaken  and  influ- 

28 


434  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

enced  by  transitory  circumstances."  The  ukase  went  on,  in 
somewhat  indefinite  terms,  to  grant  certain  liberal  reforms, 
including  uniform  laws  for  the  peasantry,  liberty  of  the  press 
and  religion,  revision  of  laws  affecting  foreigners,  and  thorough 
reform  of  the  general  laws  of  the  empire,  so  that  "  its  inviolable 
fulfillment  for  all  alike  shall  be  regarded  as  the  first  duty  by 
all  the  authorities  and  in  all  places,  subject  to  us;  that  its  non- 
fulfillment shall  inevitably  bring  with  it  legal  responsibility 
for  every  arbitrary  act,  and  that  persons  who  have  suffered 
wrong  by  such  acts  shall  be  enabled  to  secure  legal  redress." 
The  manifesto  had  been  received  by  the  reactionaries  as  too 
liberal,  and  by  the  Liberals  as  unsatisfactory,  because,  while 
promising  great  reforms,  the  Czar,  in  reaffirming  autocracy 
and  intrusting  the  execution  of  his  reforms  to  the  council  of 
ministers  and-  the  very  bureaucracy  which  is  so  detested  had 
practically  made  his  own  declaration  a  dead  letter. 

Widespread  discontent  developed  rapidly.  Then  fol- 
lowed a  strike  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  coming  to  the  fore 
of  the  Priest  Gopon,  as  champion  of  the  people.  The  strike 
spread  rapidly  and  by  Friday,  January  2oth,  174  plants  had 
been  shut  down.  At  first  the  demands  of  the  strikers  were 
purely  industrial:  The  demands  made  by  the  men  at  the 
great  Putiloff  Iron  Works  were  as  follows: 

"  First — The  dismissal  of  the  foreman  who  is  objected  to 
by  the  union  and  the  reinstatement  of  the  men  who  were  dis- 
missed for  belonging  to  the  union. 

"  Second — Eight  hours  work  per  day. 

"Third — The  valuation  of  work  to  be  made  by  a  joint 
committee  of  workmen  and  foremen. 

"Fourth — The  appointment  of  a  joint  Permanent  Com- 
mittee of  Arbitration. 

"Fifth — A  minimum  wage  of  50  cents  per  day  for  un- 
skilled male  labor. 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  435 

"Sixth — Overtime  work  not  to  be  obligatory  and  to  be 
paid  for  at  double  rate. 

"  Seventh — The  men  not  to  bear  the  cost  of  condemned 
work  when  not  responsible  for  it. 

"Eighth — A  minimum  wage  of  35  cents  per  day  for  un- 
skilled female  labor,  and  the  establishment  of  a  creche  for 
children. 

"  Ninth — Improved  medical  attendance. 

"Tenth — Improved  sanitary  conditions  in  the  work- 
shops, especially  in  the  smithies. 

"  Eleventh — Immunity  from  punishment  for  strikers. 

"Twelfth — -"The  average  rate  of  pay  during  the  strike." 

There  was  no  violence  with  the  spread  of  the  strike: 
Armies  of  men  quit  work  and  St.  Petersburg  became  terror- 
stricken.  All  the  demands  of  the  strikers  were  refused  and, 
incensed  by  this  and  carried  on  by  the  knowledge  of  their 
strength,  they  decided  to  appeal  to  the  Czar,  in  full  confidence 
that  he  would  adjust  their  grievances. 

The  situation  was  critical.  An  industrial  strike  of  vast 
proportions,  developing  into  political  riots  which  held  the 
Russian  capital  in  a  state  of  siege  and  resulted  in  the  killing 
by  the  military  of  2,100  and  the  wounding  of  5,000  of  the 
demonstrators  who  had  gathered  before  the  Winter  Palace  to 
present  a  petition  to  the  Czar,  had  almost  set  the  entire  em- 
pire ablaze.  Strikes  are  forbidden  by  Russian  law,  but,  be- 
ginning with  the  employees  of  the  Neva  Shipbuilding  Works, 
in  the  capital,  the  strike  had  spread  so  that  it'  included  all  of 
the  industries  represented  in  the  city,  paralyzing  all  business, 
and  even  depriving  the  city  of  electric  light.  Under  the  lead- 
ership of  the  courageous  priest,  their  leader,  nearly  100,000  of 
the  strikers  marched  toward  the  Winter  Palace  on  Sunday, 
January  22,  with  a  petition  to  the  Czar  (which  they  were  not 
permitted  to  present)  for  relief  from  intolerable  laws,  couched 


436  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

in  terms  of  such  despair  as  perhaps  have  not  been  used  since 
the  days  of  the  French  Revolution. 

Under  Gopon's  leadership,  a  petition  was  drawn  up  and 
largely  signed,  which,  going  beyond  the  complaints  on  which 
the  strike  originated,  attacked  the  whole  capitalistic  system 
of  the  country,  bitterly  assailed  the  present  Government  as 
one  of  bureaucracy  and  demanded  the  reform  of  both,  assert- 
ing that  death  was  preferable  to  existence  under  such  condi- 
tions. 

This  was  to  have  been  presented  personally  to  Emperor 
Nicholas.  A  deputation  of  workmen  endeavored  in  vain  to 
see  his  Majesty  at  Tsarskoe  Selo  and  appeal,  to  him  to  come 
to  -the  Winter  Palace  on  Sunday  to  be  present  at  an  immense 
demonstration  of  the  industrial  classes.  It  was  then  planned 
to  have  all  the  workmen  in  St.  Petersburg,  headed  by  their 
leader,  the  priest  Gopon,  in  full  canonical  garb,  march  to  the 
palace  and  assemble  in  the  great  parade  ground.  It  was  the 
intention  of  the  strikers  to  disregard  any  attempt  of  the  au- 
thorities to  suppress  the  meeting,  though  the  workmen  agreed 
to  attend  the  meeting  unarmed,  saying  they  were  unwilling 
to  meet  violence  with  violence. 

The  authorities  were  prepared,  and  more  than  50,000 
troops,  drawn  up  in  the  streets  and  squares  of  the  capital, 
received  the  crowds,  first  with  a  blank  volley,  and  afterward 
with  bullet,  shell,  and  saber,  killing  more  than  2,000  unarmed 
men,  women,  and  children,  and  wounding  5,000  more.  Led 
by  two  priests  in  sacred  robes,  bearing  the  cross,  these  peace- 
ful citizens  were  trampled  upon  and 'massacred  by  Cossacks. 
Before  the  slaughter,  Father  Gopon  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
Czar,  informing  him  of  the  trust  of  the  people,  and  calling  upon 
him  to  meet  the  petitioners,  but,  he  concluded,  "  if  vacillating, 
you  do  not  appear,  then  the  moral  bands  between  you  and  the 
people  who  trust  in  you  will  disappear,  because  innocent  blood 
will  flow  between  you  and  your  people."  After  the  massacre 


THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG  437 

the  strikers  intrenched  themselves  with  barricades  in  the 
streets  of  Vassili  Ostroff  (Basil  Island,  north  of  the  Neva), 
wrecking  buildings,  and  burning  telegraph  poles.  Armories, 
arsenals,  and  cartridge  factories  were  sacked.  "  Down  with 
Autocracy"  and  "Down  with  the  Czar"  were  heard  in  the 
streets.  The  Emperor  himself,  after  an  attempt  on  his  life 
had  been  made  with  a  gun  of  one  of  the  saluting  batteries  at 
the  ceremony  of  "blessing  the  waters"  (on  January  19),  had 
disappeared  from  public  view,  and  for  several  days  his  where- 
abouts were  unknown.  The  revolt  had  not  been  confined  to 
the  capital,  but  had  spread  to  Moscow,  Odessa,  and  Sevasto- 
pol, and  throughout  the  Caucasus.  In  spite  of  his  liberal  and 
reform  tendencies,  •  Prince  Sviatopolk-Mirski  was  not  looked 
upon  as  the  strong  man  of  the  occasion,  but  Russian  Liberals 
were  turning  to  ex-minister  of  finance,  Serge  Witte,  whom 
many  regarded  as  a  possible  dictator  of  the  empire. 

The  crisis  rapidly  developed.  On  February  8,  Soisalon 
Soininen,  the  procurator  general  of  Finland  was  assassinated 
at  Helingsfors,  and  ten  days  later  all  the  world  was  shocked 
to  hear  that  a  new  calamity  had  fallen  on  the  hunted  family 
of  Romanoff. 

The  Grand  Duke  Sergius,  uncle  and  brother-in-law  of 
the  Tsar,  one  of  the  chief  reactionary  powers  in  Russia,  was 
blown  to  pieces  with  a  bomb  on  February  17,  1905,  as  he 
was  leaving  the  Kremlin  in  a  carriage. 

A  few  minutes  before  the  bell  of  the  gate  sounded  the 
hour  of  three  the  equipage  of  the  Grand  Duke  emerged  from  the 
gates  of  the  palace  and  proceeded,  followed  by  sleighs  con- 
taining secret  police.  It  swept  at  a  smart  pace  toward  the 
gate,  passing  the  Choudoff  cloister,  Ivan's  tower,  the  great 
Czar  bell  and  long  rows  of  cannon  captured  from  Napoleon 
in  the  Winter  retreat  of  1812.  In  a  few  moments  the  carriage 
was  in  front  of  the  courts  of  justice,  where  the  walls  of  the 
triangle  form  a  narrow  entrance  to  the  Nicholas  gate,  and  a 


433  THE  MASSACRE  AT  ST.  PETERSBURG 

man  clad  in  workman's  attire,  stepping  forward  from  the  side- 
walk, threw  a  bomb  which  he  had  concealed  beneath  his  coat. 

A  terrible  explosion  followed  and  a  hail  of  iron  pelted  the 
grim  stone  walls  of  the  arsenal  and  courts  of  justice.  A  thick 
cloud  of  smoke,  snow  and  debris  arose,  and  when  it  had  cleared 
a  ghastly  sight  was  revealed.  On  the  snow  lay  fragments  of 
the  body  of  Grand  Duke  Sergius,  mingled  with  the  wreck  of 
the  carriage ;  his  head  had  been  torn  from  his  body  and  reduced 
to  a  shapeless  pulp,  and  the  trunk  and  limbs  were  frightfully 
mangled. 

The  assassin  was  thrown  to  the  ground  and  stunned  by 
the  force  of  the  explosion,  but  he  quickly  got  up  and  ran 
toward  the  gate,  attempting  to  escape.  His  haste  and  the 
blood  streaming  from  his  face  where  he  ha$  been  wounded 
by  fragments  of  the  bomb,  attracted  the  attention  of  a  ser- 
geant of  police,  who  seized  him  before  he  could  draw  his 
revolver. 

Police  officials  rapidly  gathered,  but  before  anything  could 
be  done  towards  collecting  the  scattered  fragments  of  the  body 
Grand  Duchess  Elizabeth  drove  up  in  an  open  carriage. 
She  broke  down  entirely  at  the  sight  and  dropped  to 
her  knees,  sobbing  bitterly.  After  a  few  minutes  she  was 
led  away,  and,  on  a  stretcher,  covered  with  a  plain  soldier's 
cloak,  the  remains  of  Sergius  were  borne  to  the  Choudoff 
cloister,  where  officials  and  members  of  the  Grand  Duke's  suite 
had  assembled. 

The  Tsar  immediately  issued  a  proclamation  lamenting  the 
murder  of  his  uncle,  but  neither  he,  nor  any  member  of  his 
immediate  family  ventured  out  of  the  palace  to  attend  the 
funeral  of  the  dead  nobleman. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

The  Russian  Rout  at  Mukden 

Kuropatkin  Overwhelmed  by  Oyama — Kuropatkin  at  Bay  on  the  Hun  River~- 
Arrival  of  Nogi  and  his  Port  Arthur  Veterans — How  the  Lines  were  Drawn — 
Attack  on  the  Russian  Center — Nogi  and  Kuroki  Bend  the  Flanks — Nogi's 
Dash  to  Mukden — Kuroki  Bursts  the  Russian  Line — Kaulbars' Gallant  Stand — 
Retreat — Enveloped  by  Oyama's  Band  of  Steel — The  Mad  Race  for  Tie  Pass- 
Trapped  by  the  Japanese — Unparalleled  Slaughter  of  Men. 

WHILE  the  final  scenes  in  the  remorseless  straggle 
around  Port  Arthur  were  drawing  to  a  bloody  close, 
an  even  more  momentous  calamity  to  the  Russian 
arms  was  shaping  itself  before  the  walls  of  the  ancient  capital 
of  the  Manchu  dynasty. 

General  Kuropatkin 's  enormous  host,  numbering  more 
than  a  quarter  million  men,  was  attacked  by  the  combined 
Japanese  armies  under  Field  Marshal  Oyama,  surrounded 
and  nearly  annihilated  in  a  furious  battle  which  lasted  for 
nearly  three  weeks  and  resulted  in  greater  loss  of  life  than 
any  conflict  of  recorded  history. 

This  continuous  and  cumulative  action  will  rank  among 
the  great  decisive  battles  of  history.  In  the  multitude  of 
the  numbers  engaged,  in  the  duration  and  desperation  of 
the  fighting,  in  the  appalling  extent  of  the  carnage,  it  finds 
no  parallel  in  the  world's  annals.  The  Japanese  fought  like 
demons  and  the  Russians  made  a  valiant  defense,  but  they 
were  outnumbered,  outgeneraled  and  outfought,  until  they 
faced  a  defeat  so  sweeping  and  irretrievable  that  it  could 
hardly  fail  to  determine  the  struggle. 

After  his   disastrous   defeat  and  evacuation  of  Liao- 

439 


440  THE  RUSSIAN  ROUT  AT  MUKDEN 

Yang,  General  Kuropatkin  fled,  in  the  extremity  of  a  Man- 
churian  winter,  to  the  north  shore  of  the  Shakhe  River, 
which  runs  westward  some  ten  miles  south  of  Mukden 
and  empties  into  th^  Hun  River.  Here,  his  300,000  men 
entrenched  themselves,  and  the  pursuing  Japanese  did  the 
same  upon  the  opposite  bank.  Each  army  sheltered  itself 
in  trenches  and  dugouts  burrowed  in  the  froze  a  soil  and 
gradually  gathered  to  itself  reinforcements.  Large  num- 
bers of  fresh  soldiers  were  hurried  to  the  Russian  side  by 
the  Manchurian  branch  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  in 
anticipation  of  the  impending  struggle,  and  General  Nogi, 
with  his  war-worn  veterans  from  Port  Arthur,  hastened 
north  to  swell  the  host  of  Oyama's  forces. 

Finally,  when  the  Japanese  ranks  numbered  about  450,- 
ooo  men  and  the  Russians  350,000,  the  great  battle  became 
general  on  February  26th,  after  some  preliminary  skirmishes. 
The  Japanese  seized  upon  that  inter-season  period  when  the 
fierce  winter  cold  has  subsided  and  the  spring  rains  have  not 
yet  made  the' roads  impassable  to  push  a  general  attack  upon 
the  Russian  position,  with  the  intention  of  driving  the  latter 
back  northward  from  Mukden  to  the  Tie  Pass,  which  General 
Kuropatkin  was  believed  to  have  fortified  strongly.  Far  more 
important,  and -more  difficult,  was  the  Japanese  attempt  to 
divide  and  cut  off  one  portion  of  the  enemy's  army — a  feat 
which  was  nearly  accomplished  at  Liao-Yang.  The  Japanese 
attack  was  at  first  strongest  on  the  east  flank  of  the  long  lines 
in  which  the  two  armies  had  been  encamped  in  winter  quarters 
north  and  south  of  the  Shakhe,  which  here  flows  almost 
straightly  from  east  to  west.  The  Russians  evidently  believed 
that  the  Japanese  serious  intention  was  to  outflank  them  at 
the  east,  but  soon  the  attack  pressed  hard  also  upon  the  center 
and  the  west.  Two  or  three  minor  passes  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Japanese  after  they  had  crossed  the  river,  but  the  Rus- 
sians maintained  a  strong  resistance  at  Lone  Tree  Hill,  which 


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THE  RUSSIAN  ROUT  AT  MUKDEN  441 

nad  been  heavily  fortified,  and  there  held  back  the  enemy 
for  a  long  time. 

Then  Kuroki  and  Oku,  on  the  Japanese  right  and  left, 
began  to  drive  in  the  Russian  flanks,  just  as  they  had  done  at 
Liao-Yang,  and  Kuropatkin  retaliated  by  hurling  General 
Kaulbars  against  the  Japanese  center.  Oyama  redoubled 
his  efforts  at  that  point  and  pressed  the  Russians  harder,  while 
Oku  and  Kuroki  never  ceased  their  crumpling  of  the  enemy's 
flanks.  Night  and  day  nearly  3,000  cannon  volleyed  projec- 
tiles across  the  death  zone  between  the  two  armies,  and  assault^ 
ing  parties  from  each  side  were  thrown  back  with  terrible 
losses.  Little  by  little,  however,  the  Japanese  gained  ground. 
Fortified  hills  fell  into  their  hands  all  along  the  front  until, 
by  March  3,  the  Russians  were  in  an  extremely  critical  situa- 
tion. Their  center  was  holding  desperately  to  its  positions, 
and  detachments  of  Japanese  were  still  turning  the  wings 
back  with  uno^iminished  fury. 

The  line  of  battle,  stretched  for  a  hundred  miles  from  tip 
to  tip,  was  now  the  shape  of  a  crescent  moon  with  the  horns 
pointing  northward.  Kuropatkin  had  been  driven  over 
the  Sha  river,  his  left,  under  Rennenkampf,  and  the  Cossacks, 
rested  on  Kandolesan,  east  of  Mukden  on  the  road  from  Sin- 
sinling  to  Tie  Pass,  and  his  right  had  been  bent  back  from 
Sinminting,  northwest  of  the  city,  until  it  was  facing  nearly 
west. 

Two  decisive  movements  then  occurred  to  precipitate 
the  Russian  rout.  A  large  part  of  Kuroki 's  force  burst  the 
line  between  Rennenkampf  and  Linevitch,  while  Nogi,  with 
his  veterans  from  Port  Arthur,  made  two  forced  marches  of 
forty  miles  a  day  without  food  or  sleep,  and  fell  on  the  Russian 
wing  only  five  miles  from  Mukden  on  the  northwest. 

Kuroki,  while  driving  an  army  under  General  Kawamura 
clear  around  the  end  of  Rennenkampf 's  line,  attacked  vigor- 
ously also  with  the  rest  of  his  command  and  presently  found  a 


442 


THE  RUSSIAN  ROUT  AT  MUKDEN 


weak  spot  between  the  two  Russian  generals.  Two  hundred 
thousand  men  seized  the  road  leading  north  to  Fushun  and 
entered  the  wedge  which  was  to  cut  off  the  Russian  left  wing 
and  speed  the  tide  of  victory.  Rennenkampf  took  to  the 
mountains  contesting  every  inch  of  the  ground  and,  trying  to 


{S  JAPANESE 


HOW  MUKDEN   WAS  WON   BY  OYAMA 

At  the  critical  moment;  the  thin  Japanese  enveloping  line  and  the  wedge  which  cut  apart  the 
Russian  armies  of  Linevitch  and  Rennenkampi. 

keep  the  wedge  from  severing  him  from  the  main  body  of  his 
countrymen,  fell  back  northward. 

Meanwhile  Nogi's  men  on  the  northwest  had  fallen  like 
an  avalanche  on  the  tip  of  Kaulbars'  right  wing,  shouting 
in  Russian,  "  Out  of  the  way  for  us ;  we  are  from  Port  Arthur!" 
After  marching  for  two  days  without  sleep  or  food  they  threw 
themselves  fanatically  on  their  enemy  and  fought  with 


THE  RUSSIAN  ROUT  AT  MUKDEN  443 

unflagging  courage,  but  those  who  were  captured  almost  imme- 
diately dropped  asleep  from  exhaustion.  This  great  exploit 
of  the  flanking  column  turned  the  growing  defeat  into  a  dis- 
aster. Japanese  shells  were  falling  within  a  few  miles  of  the 
Manchu  capital  and  Nogi  was  pressing  hard  to  cut  the  railway 
and  Kuropatkin's  retreat.  Advance  bodies  of  Japanese 
scouts  were  even  then  reported  to  be  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Tie  Pass,  forty  miles  north,  and  communicating  with  their 
fellows  from  Kuroki's  army  on  the  east. 

It  was  necessary  for  Kuropatkin  to  crush  Nogi's  force 
or  be  entirely  surrounded  and  General  Tserpitsky,  music 
playing,  temporarily  repulsed  the  swarming  enemy,  but  rein- 
forcements were  speedily  brought  up  by  the  Sinminting  Road, 
and  after  that  the  Russians  were  barely  able  to  hold  theii 
own. 

In  the  Mukden  railway  station  there  was  a  scene  of  fever- 
ish activity.  Trains  were  moving,  now  north  and  now  south, 
while  the  streets  were  filling  with  two-wheeled  ambulance 
carts,  rude  Chinese*  vehicles,  filled  with  wounded.  On 
roofs,  on  heights  and  even  from  tree  tops,  crowds  of  curious 
Russians  and  Chinese  watched  the  fight  which  continued  to 
increase  in  intensity.  The  Japanese,  like  madmen,  or  as 
though  crazed  with  some  drug,  threw  themselves  upon  the 
regiment  occupying  a  position  east  of  the  old  railway  em- 
bankment and  drove  it  eastward,  occupying  the  railway  bed 
to  the  south,  where  the  same  mad  attack  was  met  by  a  stubborn 
resistance.  Toward  evening  the  fight  slackened  on  the  rail- 
road and  the  cannonading  was  stilled.  Throughout  the  utter 
darkness  of  night  the  same  regiments  were  engaged  in  a  series 
of  demonstrations,  giving  troops  in  the  rear  a  chance  to  rest. 
At  dawn  on  March  6  began  a  fight  long  to  be  remembered 
in  the  history  of  wars.  It  was  of  terrific  grandeur,  and  might 
be  compared  to  a  vast  thunderstorm  of  lead,  shrapnel  and 
bullets  pelting  mercilessly  a  strip  of  land  twenty  miles  long 


444  THE  RUSSIAN  ROUT  AT  MUKDEN 

and  seven  miles  broad,  mowing  down  victims  by  the  thousands, 
and,  with  the  explosions  of  shimose  shells  and  scythe-like 
work  of  6-inch  shells,  razing  whole  villages. 

On  this  day  the  Russian  commander  telegraphed  to  the 
Czar,  "  I  must  abandon  Mukden,"  and  immediately  began  to 
evacuate  his  positions  south  and  southeast  of  the  city,  fighting 
a  continuous  and  desperate  rearguard  action  to  cover  his 
retreat.  For  three  days  the  Russians  filed  northward  toward 
the  reserve  fortifications  at  Tie  Pass  and  on  the  evening  of 
March  9,  shortly  after  9  o'clock,  the  order  was  given  to 
complete  the  evacuation  of  the  station  and  city,  with  direc- 
tions that  the  movements  of  trains  northward  must  be  finished 
by  5  o'clock  in  the  morning.  The  enormous  task  was  com- 
pleted in  nine  hours,  including  the  hasty  embarkation  of  the 
wounded,  who  crowded  the  station  platform  and  occupied  the 
hospitals,  and,  on  the  morning  of  March  10,  Mukden  lay 
defenceless  before  the  Japanese. 

Within  an  hour  after  the  last  Russian  train  had  left  the 
station,  Oyama's  men  entered  the  city  and  Kuropatkin  tele- 
graphed to  the  Czar,  "I  am  surrounded."  Under  cover  of  a 
terrific  dust-storm  the  preceding  day,  a  body  of  Japanese  took 
strategic  positions  farther  north  along  the  Liao  River  and 
came  in  touch  with  their  comrades  who  were  operating  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Russian  line  of  retreat.  The  cordon  of 
steel  and  men  was  drawn  completely  around  the  retiring  host, 
shells  were  falling  on  each  train  load  of  men  and  supplies 
that  passed. along  the  railroad;  but  Kuropatkin  fought  des- 
perately to  save  himself  from  a  second  Sedan  and  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  to  Tie  Pass  a  disorganized  remnant  of  his 
once  magnificent  army. 

To  enumerate  the  myriads  of  men  who  fell  in  the  frightful 
carnage  before  Mukden  conveys  an  idea  of  the  magnitude  of 
the  battle.  More  than  100,000  Russians  fell  on  the  field  and 
75,000  were  made  prisoners.  About  600  heavy  cannon  fell 


Eg0)SS!AN 

[SJAPANESE 

««**  JAR  POSITIONS 

POSITIONS 


THE   RETREAT   FROM    MUKDEN. 

All  of  the  Russian  armies  fled  precipitately,  harassed  by  Japanese  on  three  sides,  for  the 
full  forty  miles  between  Mukden  and  Tie  Pass.     Two  days  later  they  were  driven 

from  this  last  stronghold.  445 


446  THE  RUSSIAN  ROUT  AT  MUKDEN 

into  the  victor's  hands,  with  a  quarter  million  shells,  25,000,- 
ooo  rounds  of  small  ammunition,  75,000  bushels  of  cereals, 
and  275,000  of  fodder,  65,000  rifles,  1,000,000  rations  of  bread 
and  70,000  tons  of  fuel.  In  addition  to  this  the  retreating 
Russians  burned  vast  quantities  of  stores  and  exploded  a  num- 
ber of  magazines.  About  50,000  Japanese  were  slain  in  the 
conflict,  which,  with  their  number  captured,  brought  the  total 
combined  losses  to  more  than  200,000. 

The  battle  of  Mukden  makes  all  other  great  fights  of 
modern  times  fade  into  insignificance.  In  the  hosts  of  men 
engaged,  in  the  number  of  killed  and  wounded,  and  in  the 
length  of  time  it  was  fought  with  ceaseless  fury  Mukden  is 
the  greatest  of  recorded  history. 

At  Gettysburg,  the  combined  forces  were  about  170,000, 
and  the  loss  in  killed  and  wounded  during  the  three  days  of 
fighting  totaled  nearly  55,000  men.  Of  the  160,000  men 
engaged  at  Antietam,  38,000  were  killed  and  wounded  in  two. 
days.  When  Napoleon  met  his  fate  at  Waterloo  with  72,000 
men,  the  allies,  with  107,000,  wiped  out  nearly  half  his  army 
and  the  combined  casualities  mounted  to  57,000. 

Of  all  great  battles  Sedan  most  nearly  resembles  in  tactics 
the  fight  at  Mukden.  The  fate  of  France  in  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  was  decided  in  four  days  beginning  with  Sep- 
tember i,  1870.  The  combined  forces,  390,000,  were  scarcely 
as  great  as  either  one  of  the  two  armies  which  contested  the 
field  in  Manchuria,  while  the  killed  and  wounded  were  only 
about  26,000.  Only  1,000  guns  were  firing  at  Sedan  or  one- 
third  the  number  used  by  Kuropatkin  and.Oyama  together. 

After  the  fate  of  his  army  was  decided  Kuropatkin 
resigned  his  command,  pleading  shattered  health,  and  General 
Linevitch  was  appointed  to  the  supreme  direction  of  the 
Czar's  armies  in  Manchuria. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

Annihilation  of  the  Baltic  Fleet 

Rojestvensky's  Eight-Months'  Voyage  to  the  East — French  Neutrality — Togo's 
Ambuscade — The  Japanese  Attack  Suddenly — Experiences  of  a  Japanese 
Officer — Russians  Bombarded,  Torpedoed,  Sunk — Havoc  on  the  Borodino — 
Nebogatoff  Surrenders — Total  Destruction  of  the  Fleet — List  of  Vessels  Lost 
— The  Japanese  Resume  Their  Land  Campaign. 

IN  the  greatest  sea-fight  of  all  history  practically  the  entire 
Russian  navy  in  Asiatic  waters  was  annihilated  by  Togo 

and  the  Japanese  in  the  three  days  following  May  27,  1905. 
The  ill-fated  Baltic  fleet  tinder  Rojestvensky  which  had  set 
out  from  St.  Petersburg  eight  months  previously,  after  its 
embarrassing  affair  with  the  English  North  Sea  fishing  fleet 
and  its  hazardous  voyage  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  went 
utterly  to  pieces  at  the  first  clash  with  its  enemy,  lost  its  com- 
manders and  best  ships,  and  left  the  Japanese  to  continue  their 
suspended  land  campaign  at  leisure. 

In  watching  the  slow  progress  of  the  Russian  fleet  toward 
East  Asian  waters  many  observers  had  concluded  that  the  real 
object  of  Rojestvensky  was  not  to  seek  battle  with  the  Japa- 
nese, but  to  make  a  show  of  strength  which  would  morally  sup- 
port Russia's  demands  in  the  inevitable  negotiations  for  peace. 
He  was  abundantly  supplied  with  men  and  coal,  however,  and 
on  his  long  voyage  had  ample  time  to  bring  his  discipline 
and  efficiency  to  the  highest  point.  Under  his  supreme  com- 
mand were  the  divisions  of  Admirals  Enquist,  Nebogatoff  and 
Voelkersam,  comprising,  in  all,  eight  battleships,  three  arm- 
ored cruisers,  six  protected  cruisers  and  a  number  of  coast- 
defense  vessels,  torpedo  boats,  destroyers,  colliers  and  trans- 
ports. 

447 


44«  ANNIHILATION  OF  THE  BALTIC  FLEET 

Togo's  fleet  was  not  so  strong  on  paper,  though  m  weight 
of  guns  it  was  a  match  for  the  Russians.  Five  battleships, 
eight  armored  and  thirteen  protected  cruisers,  besides  a  large 
number  of  destroyers  and  torpedo  boats,  made  up  his  fighting 
force.  It  was  unhampered  by  slow-moving  colliers,  being  near 
to  its  bases  of  supplies,  and  had  greatly  the  advantage  of  its 
foes  in  mobility  and  speed.  The  gunnery  of  these  two  enemies 
had  never  been  contrasted,  and  until  the  eventful  meeting  in 
Korean  waters  few  were  confident  in  foretelling  the  outcome 
of  a  battle. 

Rojestvensky  passed  Singapore,  at  the  end  of  Malaysia, 
during  the  early  days  of  April,  and  called  forth  a  storm  of 
protests  from  Japan  by  stopping  at  the  French  port,  Kamranh 
Bay,  far  longer  than  the  customs  of  neutrality  allow.  Finally 
the  Russians  got  under  way  and  put  to  sea.  The  world  sup- 
posed Togo  to  be  watching  their  progress  and  heard  little  but 
rumor  until  the  mighty  conflict  of  May  27.  It  developed  that 
Rojestvensky,  after  feinting  to  sail  around  the  islands  of  Japan, 
made  a  dash  for  the  Straits  of  Korea,  which,  at  this  point,  are 
narrow  and  studded  with  numerous  islands,  and  which  offered 
the  shortest  possible  passage  to  Vladivostock.  Lying  in  am- 
bush behind  the  islands  on  the  Korean  side,  Togo  and  his 
entire  fleet  waited  for  the  Russians  to  approach  the  trap.  His 
position  was  ideal.  Wind  and  sun  were  at  his  back  and  his 
ships,  being  nearer  land  under  a  lee,  were  more  steady  than 
those  of  their  -enemy. 

The  following  story  of  the  battle  was  told  by  an  officer 
of  one  of  the  Japanese  ships : 

"At  5.30  Saturday  morning  a  wireless  message  reading 
"The  enemy's  squadron  is  in  sight,'  reached  the  navalbase. 
This  message  was  transmitted  to  all  our  ships  by  the  flagship, 
with  instructions  to  get  ready  for  action,  whereupon  our 
squadron  left  their  rendezvous  and  headed  for  the  eastern 
channel  off  Tsushima.  Our  men  seemed  to  be  filled  with 


ANNIHILATION  OF  THE  BALTIC  FLEET  449 

new  inspiration  and  were  eager  for  the  long-delayed  fight  to 
begin. 

"  When  Tsushima  was  sighted  to  the  southwest,  the  sea 
was  rough  and  the  torpedo  boats  were  forced  to  run  for  the 
shelter  of  the  island.  Our  third  fighting  squadron,  with  the 
Takachiho  to  port,  reconnoitered  the  Russian  course,  and  at 
11.30  A.  M.  informed  the  main  squadron  by  wireless  telegraph 
that  the  Russian  ships  were  passing  into  the  east  channel, 
whereupon  our  main  squadron,  changing  its  course  somewhat 
to  the  southward,  came  in  sight  of  Okinshima  (Ikinoshima)  at 
i  o  'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  third  division  arrived  later  and 
joined  the  main  squadron.  The  first  and  second  divisions, 
accompanied  by  the  destroyer  flotilla,  changed  to  a  westerly 
course,  while  the  third  division  and  the  fourth  destroyer 
flotilla  headed  slightly  eastward.  During  the  manceuver  the 
Russian  flagship  appeared  to  the  southward  at  1.45  o'clock. 
The  Russians  steamed  up  in  double  column.  The  fleet  was 
Aumerous,  but  no  living  being  was  visible.  The  Russian  ships 
seemed  to  be  in  good  order. 

"  Our  ships  hoisted  the  flag  of  action,  the  Mikasa  signal- 
ing, '  The  defense  of  our  Empire  depends  upon  this  action.  You 
are  expected  to  do  your  utmost. '  Our  men  seemed  silently  to 
weigh  the  significance  of  this  signal.  Our  first  and  second  divi- 
sions turned  to  the  Russians'  starboard,  while  the  third  division 
kept  in  close  touch  with  the  preceding  two  divisions.  With  the 
Japanese  ships  proceeding  in  this  order,  it  was  2.13  o'clock 
when  the  Russians  opened  fire.  The  first  two  shots  fell  short 
of  our  line  and  it  was  some  minutes  later  before  we  commenced 
firing.  Then  the  battle  was  on  with  firing  from  both  sides. 
Our  destroyers  kept  on  the  port  side  of  the  main  squadron,  and 
in  this  formation  we  pressed  the  Russians  against  the  coast  of 
Kiushiu  (the  southernmost  of  the  three  main  islands  of  Japan), 
and  they  were  obliged  to  change  their  course  to  the  east.  We 
so  manceuvered  our  ships  as  to  have  their  bows  parallel  to  the 
29 


456  ANNIHILATION  OF  THE  BALTIC  FLEET 

north  side  of  the  Russian  line.  The  Mikasa,  of  our  first  divi- 
sion, which  had  been  leading,  changed  to  the  rear  of  the  line, 
while  the  Kasuga  headed  the  line. 

"  The  engagement  now  became  very  fierce.  The  Borodino 
was  seen  to  be  on  fire.  A  little  later  the  Russians  headed  west 
and  we  changed  our  course  accordingly.  Five  ships  of  our 
second  division  concentrated  their  fire  on  the  Borodino. 

"  Our  first  division  now  began  firing  vigorously,  proceed- 
ing parallel  with  the  Russian  line,  and  as  we  began  to  press 
against  the  head  of  the  Russian  line  our  third  division  veered 
to  the  Russian  rear,  thus  enveloping  their  ships.  The  engage- 
ment proceeded  hotly.  Our  second  division  followed  a  course 
parallel  with  the  northern  side  of  the  Russians  and  this  move- 
ment completed  the  envelopment.  The  Russian  ships  were 
seen  trying  to  break  through  and  our  destroyer  flotilla  inter- 
cepted their  new  course.  This  state  of  envelopment  continued 
until  the  following  day,  with  the  ships  at  varying  distances. 
Thus  enclosed  on  all  sides,  the  Russians  were  helpless  and  pow- 
erless to  escape  the  circle. 

"  Previous  instructions  had  been  given  the  destroyers  and 
torpedo  boats  to  attack  the  Russian  ships.  Accordingly  the 
fifth  destroyer  flotilla  advanced  against  a  Russian  ship,  upon 
which  the  second  division  had  been  concentrating  its  fire,  sig- 
naling: 'We  are  going  to  give  the  last  thrust  at  them.' 
The  Russian  ship  continued  to  fight,  and  seeing  the  approach- 
ing torpedo  boats,  directed  its  fire  on  them.  Undaunted,  our 
destroyers  pressed  forward,  the  Chitose  meantime  continuing 
its  fire.  The  torpedo  flotilla  arrived  within  200  yards  of  the 
Russian  ship,  and  the  Shiranus  fired  the  first  shot.  Two  other 
torpedo  boats  fired  one  each.  The  Shiranus  received  two 
shells,  but  the  other  boats  were  not  damaged.  The  Russian 
ship  went  down. 

"Sundown  saw  the  battle  still  raging  furiously.  Our 
shells  were  evidently  telling  on  the  Russians,  who  showed  signs 


ANNIHILATION  OF  THE  BALTIC  FLEET 


HOW  THE  GREAT  BATTLE  OF  KOREA  STRAIT  WAS  FOUGHT. 
(Japanese  ships  in  outline — Russian  ships  in  black.) 

Togo,  early  in  the  morning  of  Saturday,  May  27,  with  his  fleet  with  steam  up  was  off  Masanpo, 
Korea,  when  he  was  informed  by  wireless  telegraphy  from  one  of  his  scouting  vessels  that  the  Russian 
fleet  in  two  columns  was  steaming  northeast  off  Quelpart  Island.  Sending  his  lighter  cruisers  north- 
ward, with  his  heavy  fighting  ships  and  swarm  of  torpedo  boats  and  destroyers  Togo  sailed  around  the 
head  of  Tsushima  (Tsu  Islands)  and  heading  southeast  struck  the  Russian  fleet  near  the  Ikino  Island. 
Rojestvensky  evidently  anticipating  Togo's  attack  from  the  direction  of  the  Japanese  coast,  had  his 
heavy  battleships  in  the  column  nearest  that  coast  as  follows.  Jemtchug  (cruiser),  scouting  in  the  lead 
then  the  Borodino,  Orel,  Kniaz  Souvaroff  (flagship),  Alexander  III,  Oslyabia,  Sissoi  Veliky,  Navarin, 
Nicolai  I.  In  the  other  column  were  the  armored  cruiser  Admiral  Nakhimoff,  the  coast  defense  iron- 
clads, Admiral  Oushakoff ,  Admiral  Seniavin,  Admiral  Apraxin,  the  cruisers  Dimitri  Donskoi,  Svietlana 
Oleg,  Aurora,  Almaz,  Izumrud  and  Vladimir  Monomach.  Togo  coming  from  the  northwest,  engaged 
the  column  of  cruisers  and  coast  defense  ships  first  •  the  Russian  battleships  being  too  far  to  the  east- 
ward to  join  in  the  battle  for  some  time  without  firing  upon  their  own  ships  in  the  other  column. 

It  was  here  that  the  Borodino,  Alexander  III  and  three  cruisers  were  sunk.  The  Russian  fleet 
fighting  northward  had  a  running  battle  with  the  Japanese  fleet  until  evening,  when  Togo  sent  his  tor- 
pedo boats  and  destroyers  at  them.  Under  this  attack  the  Russian  fleet  scattered,  and  several  of  the 
big  ships  went  down,  including  the  Souvaroff,  the  Navarin,  the  Sissoi  Veliky  and  the  Oslyabia.  The 
others  steamed  northward  and  on  the  next  day,  May  28,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Liancourt  Rocks,  the 
Japanese,  after  sinking  the  Admiral  Oushakoff,  captured  the  battleships  Orel  and  Nicolai  I  and  the 
coast-defense  ships  Admiral  Apraxin  and  Admiral  Seniavin. 


452  ANNIHILATION  OF  THE  BALTIC  FLEET. 

of  confusion.  Our  fifth  torpedo  flotilla,  after  destroying  the 
Borodino,  followed  in  the  wake  of  our  second  division,  the  sig- 
nal reading:  'Something  like  the  Russians'  submarines  have 
been  sighted.  Attack  them.'  The  flotilla  followed  and 
located  the  object,  which  proved  to  be  a  sinking  ship  with 
its  overturned  bottom  showing.  Thirty  survivors  clung  to 
the  wreck,  crying  for  assistance.  Firing  ceased  with  the 
approach  of  darkness. 

"According  to  orders  previously  given  for  a  torpedo  attack 
after  dark,  all  the  destroyer  flotilla,  dividing  into  two  squad- 
rons, proceeded  to  attack  the  Russians  during  the  whole  night. 
The  Russians  frustrated  the  first  and  second  attacks  with 
searchlights.  A  third  attempt  was  carefully  made  and  the 
Yugiri  sank  a  ship  of  the  Borodino  type,  and  also  hit  others. 
During  the  night  the  Russians  continued  to  move  and  we  pre- 
served our  enveloping  movement  some  distance  from  the  Rus- 
sian position.  The  Russian  ships  headed  northeast  after  day- 
break, hoping  to  reach  Vladivostok.  Our  officers  and  men 
were  determined  that  not  a  ship  should  escape,  and  resolved 
not  to  relax  their  efforts  until  they  had  succeeded  in  either 
sinking  or  capturing  every  Russian  ship.  Our  ships  always 
kept  ahead  of  the  Russians.  The  battle  was  resumed  at  9 
o'clock  Sunday  morning,  twelve  miles  east  of  Chiyupyon  Bay, 
and  lasted  all  day.  Here  the  Russians  suffered  their  heaviest 
losses.  They  seemed  unprepared  to  repel  night  attacks.  Dur- 
ing our  first  night  attack  the  Russians  showed  nine  search- 
lights and  frustrated  the  attacks,  but  clearly  gave  us  the  loca- 
tion of  the  fleet,  which  brought  success  later." 

On  board  the  Borodino  the  carnage  was  awful  and  typical 
of  the  fate  suffered  by  the  other  Russian  ships.  An  officer  of 
this  ill-fated  ship  described  the  horror  of  his  struggle  as  follows : 

"Admiral  Rojestvensky  came  on  board  early  in  the  battle 
and  directed  the  fighting  from  the  Borodino's  flying  bridge. 
At  three  o'clock  the  Japanese  battleships  Shikishima  and  Fuji 


From  btereograph,  copyright  1905,  by  Underwood  &  Uncerwood,  .New  York 

PLENIPOTENTIARY  ENVOYS  OF  RUSSIA  (M.  WITTE  AND  BARON  ROSEN)  AND 
JAPAN  (BARON  KOMURA  AND  MINISTER  TAKAHIRA)  AND  PRESIDENT  ROOSEVELT, 
IN  THE  CABIN  OF  THE  "  MAYFLOWER,"  AUGUST  5,  1005. 


ANNIHILATION  OF  THE  BALTIC  FLEET  453 

opened  every  gun  upon  us.  A  projectile  struck  the  forward 
barbette,  in  which  I  had  charge  of  a  twelve-inch  gun,  and  this 
rendered  us  all  insensible.  I  groped  out  of  the  smoke-filled 
barbette  to  the  deck  and  found  there  a  rain  of  projectiles. 
Dozens  were  lying  dead  or  wounded  at  every  turn.  I  returned 
to  the  barbette,  but  was  only  able  to  fire  two  rounds  when  two 
projectiles  struck  us  simultaneously,  wrecked  the  barbette, 
disabled  both  the  twelve-inch  guns  and  killed  eighteen  officers 
and  men.  The  Borodino  now  became  a  veritable  shambles, 
successive  shells  destroying  the  steering  gear  and  ammunition 
hoists,  so  that  the  shells  had  to  be  carried  by  hand.  Admiral 
Rojestvensky  was  wounded  and  transferred  to  a  destroyer, 
and  as  the  destroyer  left  she  was  assailed  by  a  hail  of  small- 
arm  ammunition. 

"  It  was  now  four  o'clock.  The  Borodino  had  been  repeat- 
edly struck  in  the  hull,  and  was  settling  down,  with  no  hope  of 
saving  her. 

"  The  Japanese  had  broken  our  battle  formation  and  were 
closing  in,  concentrating  their  fire  on  our  fighting  tops,  of 
whose  crews  hardly  one  escaped.  Fire  had  now  broken  out 
in  several  places,  adding  to  the  horror  of  our  situation,  and  it 
was  decided  to  withdraw  from  the  firing  line  for  the  purpose 
of  repairing  our  steering  gear.  But  we  were  surrounded  by 
eight  Japanese  ships  and  bombarded  on  every  side. 

"  We  still  fought  desperately  without  our  after  twelve-inch 
guns  and  what  was  left  of  our  smaller  guns  and  with  about  half 
our  complement  of  men.  But  the  Borodino  sank  lower  and 
lower.  Toward  evening,  after  we  had  lost  four  hundred  men, 
we  noticed  two  Japanese  destroyers  coming  toward  us.  We 
sank  one  with  a  well-directed  shell.  The  other  launched  a 
torpedo  which  missed  us. 

"All  the  men  in  the  engine  rooms  were  driven  on  deck  by 
the  flames  of  the  spreading  fire.  Finally  a  Japanese  torpedo 
flotilla  bore  down  upon  us  and  an  explosion  caused  the  Bow- 


454  ANNIHILATION  OF  THE  BALTIC  FLEET 

dino  to  turn  turtle.  I  with  forty  others  was  rescued  from  the 
sea  by  the  Japanese  armored  cruiser  Kasuga  and  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  shore." 

Togo  enjoyed  the  great  advantage  of  tactical  position 
when  he  opened  fire,  having  the  lightest  of  the  Russian  ships 
between  him  and  Rojestvensky  's  heavier  vessels,  thus  smother- 
ing the  fire  of  the  latter.  Besides,  Togo  was  able  to  use  all  his 
broadsides,  whereas  the  sternmost  ships  of  the  Russian  col- 
umn, coming  on  in  line  ahead  formation,  could  only  with  diffi- 
culty use  any  guns  at  all.  Nevertheless,  although  suffering 
the  complete  loss  of  four  ships  in  the  desperate  encounter  which 
followed  and  being  subjected  to  a  series  of  torpedo  attacks 
Saturday  night,  Rojestvensky  was  able  to  steam  200  miles 
during  the  night.  When  Sunday  morning  came  the  Russian 
fleet  was  divided  into  two  divisions.  The  faster  and  stronger 
division,  under  Rojestvensky,  was  met  by  Kamimura  and 
Uriu,  while  the  slower  division,  under  Nebogatoff,  renewed  the 
fight  with  Togo.  With  some  of  the  scattered  Russian  units 
it  was  a  case  of  save  himself  who  could. 

The  fight  lasted  continuously  for  three  days,  Togo  pur- 
suing the  Russian  remnant  up  the  Sea  of  Japan  to  the  Lian- 
court  Islands,  where  Rear- Admiral  Nebogatoff  surrendered  the 
two  battleships,  Orel  and  Nicolai  I,  and  two  coast-defense  ves- 
sels, Apraxin  and  Seniavin. 

When  the  smoke  of  battle  had  cleared  away  and  Togo  had 
reassembled  his  ships,  not  one  Japanese  battleship  or  cruiser 
was  lost  or  even  disabled. 

But  the  extent  of  Russia's  disaster  was  appalling.  Of  the 
magnificent  fleet  which  had  sailed  around  the  world  into  Japa- 
nese waters  only  one  war  vessel  had  escaped  capture  or  destruc- 
tion. The  gigantic  armada  of  the  Czar  had  been  -totally  oblit- 
erated at  its  first  contact  with  the  enemy.  Only  the  swift 
cruiser  Almaz  managed  to  reach  Vladivostok,  and  a  few  trans- 
ports fled  to  the  Philippines  and  other  neutral  ports,  where 


ANNIHILATION  OF  THE  BALTIC  FLEET  455 

they  were  dismantled,  in  accordance  with  international  law. 
More  than  sixty  vessels  of  all  sizes  had  passed  Singapore  two 
months  before;  only  one  reached  its  destination.  Admiral 
Rojestvensky  was  found  by  the  Japanese  wounded  hiding  in 
a  destroyer  and  was  taken  to  Sasebo.  Admiral  Von  Voelker- 
sam  was  killed  by  a  shell  in  the  conning  tower  of  his  flagship, 
the  Oslyabia;  Admiral  Nebogatoff  surrendered  at  Liancourt 
Rocks,  and  Enquist  was  a  refugee  at  Manila.  It  was  the  most 
complete  and  crushing  naval  defeat  in  history. 

SHIPS  VANQUISHED  BY  TOGO. 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  Russian  vessels  sunk  or  captured 
by  the  Japanese  fleet: 

SUNK. 

Displacement. 

Tons.  Crew. 

Kniaz  Souvaroff  (flagship) 13,516  740 

Borodino,  battleship 13,516  740 

Alexander  III,  battleship 13,516  740 

Oslyabia,  battleship 12,674  732 

Sissoi  Veliky,  battleship 10,400  550 

Navarin,  battleship 10,206  630 

Admiral  Oushakoff,  coast  defense 4,126  318 

Admiral  Nakhimoff,  armored  cruiser •.    .     8,524  567 

Dimitri  Donskoi,  armored  cruiser 6,200  510 

Vladimir  Monomach,  armored  cruiser 5,593  550 

Aurora,  protected  cruiser 6,630  422 

Svietlana,  protected  cruiser 3,862  360 

Jemtchug,  protected  cruiser 3,106  340 

Oleg,  protected  cruiser '.    .    .    .    .     6,675  422 

Izumrud,  protected  cruiser   ....._ 3,200  340 

Repair  ship  Kamtchatka,  transport  Irtyssen  and  three  destroyers. 

CAPTURED. 

Orel,  battleship 13,5 1 6  740 

Nicolai  I,  battleship 9,672  604 

Apraxin  and  Seniavin,  coast-defense  ships 4,200  318 

Transport  Ural  and  one  destroyer. 


THE  BATTLE  OF    THE  SEA  OF  JAPAN 

The  Russian  fleet  under  Admiral  Rojestvensky  sailed  from  the  Baltic  Sea  to  attack  Japnn  in 
her  own  waters.  After  a  voyage  of  several  months  the  fleet  assembled  and  gave  battle  in  the 
Sea  of  Japan,  and  was  defeated  by  the  Japanese  fleet  under  Admiral  Togo, 


CHAPTER  XLI. 

Peace  Negotiations 

Theodore   Roosevelt    Calls    for    Peace — Shirtsleeve    Diplomacy — The    President's 
Note — Japan  and  Russia  Accept — Applauded  by  the  Powers. 

WHILE  all  the  world  was  waiting  anxiously  to  see  if 
the  victorious  Japanese  would  push  the  war  into 
Siberia,  and  to  see  if  Russia  would  slaughter  more 
thousands  of  soldiers  in  what  seemed  a  hopeless  struggle, 
European  diplomats  sat  with  folded  hands  and  made  no 
attempt  to  end  a  conflict  which  was  rapidly  injuring  the 
prosperity  of  all  the  nations.  It  was  Theodore  Roosevelt, 
President  of  the  United  States,  who  gave  them  another  les- 
son in  the  now  famous  American  "  Shirtsleeve  diplomacy, "  by 
urging  the  two  warring  powers  to  make  peace  and  offer- 
ing himself  as  mediator  if  his  services  were  requested.  The 
President  had,  before  writing  to  the  belligerents,  sounded 
each  of  them  unofficially  to  learn  their  attitudes  and  had 
also  felt  the  pulse  of  every  European  power. 

On  Thursday,  June  8,  he  sent  to  the  Japanese  and  Russian 
Governments,  through  diplomatic  channels,  the  following 
dispatch : 

"  The  President  feels  that  the  time  has  come  when  in  the 
interest  of  all  mankind  he  must  endeavor  to  see  if  it  is  not 
possible  to  bring  to  an  end  the  terrible  and  lamentable  conflict 
now  being  waged.  With  both  Russia  and  Japan  the  United 
States  has  inherited  ties  of  friendship  and  good  will.  It  hopes 
for  the  prosperity  and  welfare  of  each,  and  it  feels  that  the 
progress  of  the  world  is  set  back  by  the  war  between  these  two 
great  nations. 

457 


PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

1  The  President  accordingly  urges  the  Russian  and  Japan- 
ese Governments,  not  only  for  their  own  sakes,  but  in  the 
interest  of  the  whole  civilized  world,  to  open  direct  negotia- 
tions for  peace  with  one  another. 

"The  President  suggests  that  these  peace  negotiations 
be  conducted  directly  and  exclusively  between  the  belliger- 
ents; in  other  words,  that  there  may  be  a  meeting  of  Russian 
and  Japanese  plenipotentiaries  or  delegates  without  any 
intermediary  in  order  to  see  if  it  is  not  possible  for  these  repre- 
sentatives of  the  two  Powers  to  agree  to  terms  of  peace.  The 
President  earnestly  asks  that  the  Japanese  (Russian)  Govern- 
ment do  now  agree  to  such  meeting,  and  is  asking  the  Russian 
(Japanese)  Government  likewise  to  agree. 

"  While  the  President  does  not  feel  that  any  intermediary 
should  be  called  in  in  respect  to  the  peace  negotiations  them- 
selves, he  is  entirely  willing  to  do  what  he  properly  can  if  the 
two  Powers  concerned  feel  that  his  services  will  be  of  'aid  in 
arranging  the  preliminaries  as  to  the  time  and  place  of  meeting. 
But  if  even  these  preliminaries  can  be  arranged  directly 
between  the  two  Powers,  or  in  any  other  way,  the  President 
will  be  glad,  as  his  sole  purpose  is  to  bring  about  a  meeting 
which  the  whole  civilized  world  will  pray  may  result  in  peace. " 

The  effect  of  this  letter  was  instantaneous.  The  Euro- 
pean powers,  none  of  whom  would  take  the  initiative  in  bring- 
ing about  peace,  began  to  second  America's  effort.  Kaiser 
William  urged  it  on  the  Czar,  through  the  Grand  Duke  Michael, 
who  happened  to  be  attending  the  wedding  of  the  German 
Crown  Prince,  and  President  Loubet  despatched  a  similar 
message  to  St.  Petersburg,  through  the  French  Ambassador. 
London  expressed  great  satisfaction  at  Roosevelt's  direct 
methods,  and  there  was  open  admiration  in  St.  Petersburg 
for  the  man  "who  acted  while  others  thought." 

President  Roosevelt's  intention  was  that  Russia  and 
Japan  should  appoint  representatives  with  full  powers  to 


PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS  459 

meet  and  come  to  terms  of  peace  without  the  use  of  a  third 
party.  At  every  stage  of  the  negotiations  Japan  had  reso- 
lutely assumed  the  position  that  she  could  not  admit  the  inter- 
cession of  any  other  Power,  nor  present  her  peace  terms  in 
any  other  way  except  directly  to  Russia,  and  the  President's 
identical  note  was  framed  in  accordance  with  this  attitude  of 
Japan's.  The  latter  was  first  to  accept  the  President's  sugges- 
tion, and  Russia  immediately  followed.  Both  powers  gave 
assurances  that  they  were  acting  in  good  faith  and  actively 
began  arranging  for  the  proposed  meeting.  The  result  was 
twofold :  a  bringing  together  of  two  hostile  nations  in  a  man- 
ner to  save  the  pride  of  both,  and  a  great  addition  to  the 
prestige  of  the  United  States. 

After  it  had  been  decided  that  the  envoys  to  treat  for 
peace  should  meet  on  American  soil,  with  full  power  to  act, 
the  Mikado  named  as  his  plenipotentiaries  Baron  Komura 
and  Kogoro  Takahira,  Japanese  minister  to  the  United  States. 
After  various  appointees  had  been  announced  for  the  repre- 
sentatives, among  them  Muravieff,  the  Czar  finally  selected 
Sergius  Witte,  formerly  Minister  of  Finance,  and  Baron 
Rosen,  who  had  been  Ambassador  to  the  English  Court.  The 
Japanese  chief  envoy  was  conveyed  on  a  cruiser  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, and,  crossing  the  continent,  arrived  in  New  York  on 
Wednesday,  July  26.  He  was  joined  immediately  by  Minister 
Takahira,  and,  before  visiting  anyone  else,  made  a  formal 
call  on  President  Roosevelt  at  Oyster  Bay. 

The  Russian  envoys,  after  some  delay,  left  Paris,  and 
crossing  the  Atlantic  on  a  Russian  cruiser  were  presented  to 
Piesident  Roosevelt.  The  members  of  the  'two  parties  were 
then  introduced  to  each  other  and  sailed  on  the  Dolphin  and 
Mayflower,  escorted  by  their  respective  warships,  for  Ports- 
mouth, New  Hampshire,  where  peace  negotiations  were  en- 
tered into  at  the  Navv  Yalo  .avoid  the  heat  at  the  Capital. 


460  PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

Special  preparations  had  been  made  for  the  reception 
of  the  envoys  and  every  facility  was  afforded  them  for  a 
speedy  consideration  of  the  momentous  subject  which  had 
brought  them  together.  On  the  second  floor  of  the  main 
building  at  the  Navy  Yard,  rooms  had  been  set  apart  for 
the  meeting  of  the  envoys,  and  also  for  consultation  purposes. 
We  give  in  one  of  our  illustrations  a  view  of  the  Board  as  it 
was  organized,  with  the  envoys  of  Russia  and  Japan  facing 
each  other.  They  represented  the  most  distinguished  men 
of  both  countries.  Both  sides  seemed  to  realize  the  import- 
ance of  their  mission  and  the  gravity  of  the  subject  which 
was  before  them;  also  the  necessity  of  a  speedy  decision. 
The  representatives  of  each  country  had  come  with  full 
powers  to  negotiate  a  treaty,  but  had  definite  instructions 
beyond  which  they  could  not  go. 

It  fell  to  the  victorious  side,  the  Japanese,  to  present 
in  a  formal  manner  their  demands  or  terms  which  they 
would  require  for  a  settlement.  However,  on  August  gth, 
the  first  day  of  meeting  of  the  conference,  the  representatives 
of  each  government  presented  their  credentials  for  the  other's 
inspection.  On  the  following  day  they  were  declared  satis- 
factory and  the  Japanese  then  presented  a  set  of  twelve 
conditions  or  principles  essential  to  a  peace  treaty.  Although 
both  sides  had  agreed  that  the  proceedings  of  the  conference, 
should  remain  secret,  it  very  early  developed  that  the  twelve 
conditions  necessary  for  peace  as  outlined  by  the  Japanese 
were  as  follows,  stated  briefly  now,  but  which  we  shall  amplify 
later  when  we  speak  of  the  results  of  the  conference  and  the 
details  of  the  agreement  reached,  for  convenience  of  reference 
giving  these  principles  in  a  succinct  form: 

1.  Recognizing  the  preponderating  influence  of  Japan 
in  Corea. 

2.  The  simultaneous  evacuation  of  Manchuria  by  the 
Russian  and  Japanese  militarv  forces. 


PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS  461 

3.  The  whole  transfer  to  Japan  of  Russian  leasehold 
in  the  Liaotung  peninsula,  Port  Arthur  and  Dalny. 

4.  Return  to  China  of  the  civil  administration  of  Man- 
churia in   accordance  with  the   treaty  given  by  Russia  to 
China   on   April    8,    1902,    which   provided   that   Manchuria 
would  be  restored  to  China  in  three  successive  periods  of 
six  months  each,  the  failure  to  carry  out  which  was  one  of 
the  chief  factors  of  the  war. 

5.  Cession  of  the  island  of  Sakhalin  by  Russia  to  Japan. 

6.  The  transfer  to  Japan  of  all  docks,  magazines  and 
military  warehouses  in  Port  Arthur  and  Dalny  without  com- 
pensation;   all  rights  in  private  property  to  be  respected. 

7.  The  transfer  to  Japan  of  the  railroad  between  Port 
Arthur  and  Dalny  and  Harbin,  part  of  which  was  at  time  of 
negotiations  in  Japan's  military  occupation. 

8.  Retention  by  Russia  of  the  main  Manchurian  line. 

9.  Russia  to  reimburse  Japan  for  the  war  expenses. 

10.  Russia  to  transfer  to  Japan  all  her  warships  now 
interned  in  Pacific  ports. 

11.  The  limitation  of  Russian  naval  force  in  the  Pacific 
waters. 

12.  Japan  to  have  fishing  rights  on  the  Siberian  coast. 
A  study  of  the  claims  and  a  comparison  writh  the  treaty 

as  finally  concluded  shows  at  once  that  Japan  abandoned  all 
the  punitive  clauses  of  the  original  demands  and  further  cut 
in  half  her  demand  for  Sakhalin  as  contained  in  Article  5, 
for  to  Russia  she  cedes  all  of  Sakhalin  north  of  the  fiftieth 
parallel  of  latitude.  The  seizure  of  Sakhalin  was  an  incident 
of  the  war.  Japan's  old  claim  on  the  island  was  not  one  of 
the  causes  of  the  war. 

After  the  preliminaries  of  the  first  two  days,  the  chief 
incidents  in  the  negotiations  were: 

On  the  1 2th  the  Japanese  envoys  received  the  Russian 
answer  to  their  conditions,  and  the  conferees  proceeded  to  a 


462  PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

consideration  of  the  articles  seriatim.  Two  days  later  an 
agreement  was  reached  on  three  of  them,  and  on  the  i5th  oil 
two  more,  laying  over  one,  believed  to  be  the  fifth,  that  on 
Sakhalin.  On  the  iyth  a  temporary  deadlock  was  reached 
on  indemnity  and  surrender  of  interned  vessels,  and  on  the 
1 8th  the  conference  adjourned  until  the  226.,  the  Russians' 
having  agreed  to  eight  Japanese  proposals,  and  refused  to  ac- 
cept those  relating  to  indemnity,  cession  of  Sakhalin,  sur- 
render of  interned  warships,  and  limiting  Russian  naval 
power  in  the  Pacific. 

At  President  Roosevelt's  request,  Baron  Rosen,  on  the 
igth,  had  a  conference  with  him  at  Oyster  Bay,  after  which 
it  was  reported  that  the  President  urged  Russia  to  pay  an 
indemnity  now  in  order  to  avoid  heavier  demands  later;  but 
Russia  declined  to  take  such  a  course.  On  Monday,  the  2ist, 
the  special  agent  of  the  Japanese  government  in  this  country, 
Baron  Kaneko,  made  a  call  on  the  President  by  request,  the 
latter  still  striving  to  arrange  a  compromise  between  the 
belligerents.  Failure  to  attain  to  peace  was  still  generally 
expected.  But  when  the  conferees  met  again  (22d)  the  Jap- 
anese made  a  concession,  proposing  that,  in  lieu  of  an  indem- 
nity, Russia  purchase  Sakhalin  Island,  at  a  price  to  be  fixed 
by  a  board  of  arbiters.  Prospects  of  peace  seemed  much 
brighter.  No  advance  step,  however,  was  taken  on  the  23d, 
though  the  Japanese  offered  further  concessions,  and  adjourn- 
ment for  three  days  was  agreed  upon.  This  was  in  conse- 
quence of  President  Roosevelt  having  appealed  to  the  Czar 
through  Ambassador  Meyer,  who  had  a  long  conference  with 
His  Majesty  at  Peterhof,  but  without  the  desired  result- 
Russia,  her  foreign  minister,  Count  Lansdorff,  announced  on 
the  24th,  would  pay  no  tribute  to  Japan  directly  or  indirectly, 
and  would  cede  no  territory  whatever. 

In  view  of  this  statement  the  Japanese  commissioners 
were  inclined  to  regard  their  mission  as  over  and  seemed  to 


PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS  463 

iliink  the  negotiations  would  md  in  failure  on  the  26th.  But 
the  President  persisted  in  his  efforts  to  bring  about  a  settle- 
ment, to  this  end  communicating  with  M.  Witte,  who  had  to 
answer  that  the  Czar  remained  obdurate.  At  the  same  time 
it  was  announced  that  the  Tokio  government  would  not  yield. 
The  outlook  was  gloomy  indeed,  then,  when  the  envoys  met  on 
the  26th.  It  was  only  for  a  brief  session.  At  Baron  Komura's 
request  they  adjourned  until  Monday  afternoon,  the  28th, 
until  he  could  hear  further  from  his  government.  The  Czar 
had  just  sent  his  ultimatum  to  the  President's  propositions, 
declining  to  pay  Japan  an  indemnity  under  any  guise,  but 
offering  to  cede  the  southern  half  of  Sakhalin  and  to  pay 
liberally  for  the  care  of  the  Russian  prisoners  of  war.  When 
the  28th  came  it  was  announced  that,  as  the  result  of  a  con- 
ference between  Mr.  Takahira  and  M.  Witte,  the  meeting 
had  been  postponed  until  such  time  as  the  Japanese  envoys 
received  final  instructions  from  Tokio. 

It  was  believed  the  President  had  brought  about  this 
postponement  by  direct  communication  with  the  Mikado's 
government,  which  had  been  called  in  secret  consultation  on 
the  subject.  On  the  afternoon  of  the  28th  it  was  known  in 
Portsmouth  that  Japan  was  yielding,  but  to  what  extent  was 
not  divulged  until  the  conferees  had  met  next  morning. 
When  they  did  meet,  on  that  ever-memorable  August  29, 
1905,  Japan  withdrew  her  demands  for  indemnity,  for  the 
interned  Russian  ships  and  for  the  proposed  restriction  on 
Russian  naval  power  in  the  East.  Thereupon  the  conferees 
announced  that  the  treaty  would  be  drafted  by  two  of  the 
most  eminent  of  international  lawyers,  Professor  Maartens 
for  Russia,  and  for  Japan  Mr.  Denison,  an  American  who  has 
been  a  resident  of  that  country  for  thirty-six  years,  and  the 
legal  adviser  of  its  government  for  the  past  twenty  years. 

"That  is  splendid — magnificent!"  exclaimed  President 
Roosevelt,  who  was  one  of  the  very  first  outside  of  the  con- 


464  PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

ference  room  to  hear  the  news  officially.  But  equally  splendid 
has  been  the  tribute  paid  to  him  for  his  share  in  the  result. 
He  had  not  expected  it,  and  was  prepared  to  appeal  to  the 
German  Emperor  to  have  him  use  his  influence  with  the  Czar 
as  a  last  resort  in  his  efforts  to  bring  the  warring  nations  to 
terms.  But  he  had  won  without  this  appeal;  and  the  heads 
of  the  nations,  as  well  as  the  most  prominent  men  in  all  walks 
of  life  and  the  press  of  the  world,  hastened  to  give  him  due 
credit  for  the  service  he  had  rendered  to  humanity.  In 
America  all  party  distinctions  were  laid  aside  by  press  and 
political  leaders,  and  the  President's  success  was  hailed  with 
approval  and  praise.  These  tributes  are  worthy  of  permanent 
record,  and  for  that  reason  we  select  a  few  for  these  pages. 

The  cable  messages  from  King  Edward  and  Emperor  Wil- 
liam were  among  the  first  to  be  received.  They  said: 

"MARIENBAD,  Aug.  29. 
"  The  President: 

"  Let  me  be  one  of  the  first  to  congratulate  you  on  the 
successful  issue  of  the  Peace  Conference,  to  which  you  have 
so  greatly  contributed. 

"EDWARD  R.  I." 

"NEUES  PALAIS,  Aug.  29. 
"President  Theodore  Roosevelt: 

"Just  read  cable  from  America  announcing  agreement 
of  peace  conference  on  preliminaries  of  peace;  am  overjoyed; 
express  most  sincere  congratulations  at  the  great  success 
due  to  your  untiring  efforts.  The  whole  of  mankind  must 
unite  and  will  do  so  in  thanking  you  for  the  great  boon  you 
have  given  it. 

"WILLIAM  I.  R." 


PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS  465 

The  Emperor  of  Austria  and  King  of  Hungary  cabled  on 
the  3ist: 

"ISCHL,  Aug.  31. 

"  To  the  President  of  U.  S.  A.: 

11  On  the  occasion  of  the  peace  just  concluded  I  hasten,  Mr. 
President,  to  send  you  my  friendliest  felicitations  on  the  result 
of  your  intervention.  May  the  world  be  blessed  with  many 
years'  continuance  of  peace  undisturbed. 

"FRANZ  JOSEF." 

This  came  from  the  President  of  France: 

"LA  BEGUDE,  PRESIDENCE,  Aug.  30. 
"  The  President  of  the  Republic  of  the  United  States: 

'Your  Excellency  has  just  rendered  to  humanity  an 
eminent  service,  upon  which  I  felicitate  you  heartily.  The 
French  Republic  rejoices  in  the  role  which  her  sister,  America, 
has  played  in  this  historic  event.  "EMILE  LOUBET.  " 

Sir  Mortimer  Durand,  the  British  Ambassador  to  the 
United  States;  M.  Jusserand,  the  French  Ambassador;  Sir 
Chentung  Liang-cheng,  the  Chinese  Minister;  Baron  Mayor 
des  Planches,  the  Italian  Ambassador,  and  Count  Cassini, 
formerly  Russian  Ambassador  to  this  country,  and  then 
accredited  to  Madrid,  Spain,  all  expressed  their  appreciation 
of  the  President's  efforts  in  behalf  of  peace.  Their  messages 
of  eulogy  follow: 

"LENOX,  Mass.,  Aug.  29. 
"Secretary  to  the  President: 

"  Please  submit  to  the  President  my  most  cordial  con- 
gratulations upon  success  of  his  efforts  to  bring  about  peace. 

"  DURAND." 

"AMHERST,  Mass.,  Aug.  30. 
"  The  President: 

"  I  beg  to  offer  my  hearty  congratulations  for  the  success- 
ful conclusion  of  peace  for  which  the  whole  world,  especially 
the  Orient,  is  ever  indebted  to  you. 

3o  "  CHENTUNG  LIANG-CHENG.  " 


466  PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

"  WASHINGTON,  Aug.  29. 

"  President  Roosevelt: 

"I  beg  to  offer  to  you,  Mr.  President,  on  behalf  of  the 
Italian  Government  and  of  myself  as  representative  of  my 
august   sovereign,    heartfelt   congratulations   for   your  great 
success  in  re-establishing  peace.     Italy,  which,  since  her  con-,' 
stitution,   has  endeavored  to  be  an  element  and  factor  of\ 
harmony  among  nations,  will  greatly  admire  and  praise  the 
work  you  brought  on  so  advantageously  for  the  benefit  of 
humanity. 

"MAYOR  DES  PLANCHES, 
"  Italian  Ambassador. " 

"LONDON,  Aug.  30. 
"  President  Roosevelt: 

"  Heartiest,   warmest  congratulations. 

"  JUSSERAND.  " 

"  PARIS,  Aug.  30. 
•"President  Roosevelt: 

"Profoundly  happy  at  the  result  of  the  negotiations, 
which  assures  a  peace  honorable  to  both  nations  and  in  which 
you  have  taken  so  fruitful  a  part.  "CASSINI." 

The  Pope  was  informed  of  the  conclusion  of  peace  in  the 
Far  East  early  on  the  morning  of  'the  3oth.  He  immediately 
rose,  exclaiming: 

"This  is  the  happiest  news  of  my  life.  Thank  God  for 
President  Roosevelt's  courage." 

The  Pontiff  telegraphed  later  to  Emperor  Nicholas  his 
congratulations  to  him  and  to  the  whole  world. 

Among  the  telegrams  received  by  the  President  from 
other  men  of  prominence  is  the  following: 

"BALTIMORE,  MD.,  Aug.  29. 
"President  Roosevelt: 

"Accept  hearty  congratulations  on  your  splendid  victory 
for  peace.  "JAMES,  CARDINAL  GIBBONS." 


PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS  467 

A  cablegram  signed  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
John  Morley,  President  Murray  Butler,  Charles  Dabney, 
Richard  Harlan,  Gen.  Grant  Wilson,  Andrew  Carnegie  and 
others,  who  were  guests  of  Andrew  Carnegie  in  Scotland,  read : 

"CLASHMORE,  SCOTLAND,  Aug.  30. 
"  President: 

"  vSkibo  guests  thankfully  congratulate  you  and  three  con-j 
tinents  upon  the  conclusion  of  honorable  and,  we  hope,  lasting 
-peace  between  two  great  empires.     May  this  be  the  last  war 
between   civilized   peoples." 

Next  came  this: 

"LONDON,  Aug.  30. 
' '  Pr&siden  t  Roosevelt : 

"Beg  your  Excellency  to  accept  my  heartfelt  congratula- 
tions ;jn  successful  issue  of  your  able  and  persistent  efforts  on 
behalf  of  peace.  The  whole  world,  civilized  and  uncivilized, 
is  indebted  to  you.  "GENERAL  BOOTH,  Salvation  Army. " 

The  credit  for  the  result  had  been  expressed  officially, 
first  of  all,  by  the  plenipotentaries  themselves.  On  the  very 
day  the  agreement  had  been  reached  they  both  telegraphed 
and  wrote  to  the  President  acknowledging  the  vital  importance 
of  the  part  he  had  taken.  In  answering  these  missives  he 
asked  them  to  convey  to  their  respective  sovereigns  his  "ear- 
nest congratulations  upon  the  wisdom  and  magnanimity" 
they  and  their  people  had  displayed,  a  feeling,  he  felt  sure, 
all  civilized  mankind  shared  with  him.  The  envoys,  of  course, 
did  as  requested,  and  in  due  time  the  following  messages  came:, 

"PETERHOF,  ALEXANDRIA,  August  31. 
"President  Roosevelt: 

"Accept  my  congratulations  and  earnest  thanks  for 
having  brought  the  peace  negotiations  to  a  successful  conclu- 
sion owing  to  your  personal  energetic  efforts.  My  country 
will  gratefully  recognize  the  great  part  you  have  played  in  the 
Portsmouth  peace  conference.  (Signed)  "NICHOLAS." 


468  PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

"ToKio,  Sept.  3,  1905. 
"The  President: 

"  I  have  received  with  gratification  your  message  of  con- 
gratulations conveyed  through  our  plenipotentiaries,  and 
thank  you  warmly  for  it.  To  your  disinterested  and  unremit- 
ting efforts  in  the  interests  of  peace  and  humanity  I  attach 
the  high  value  which  is  their  due,  and  assure  you  of. my  grate- 
ful appreciation  of  the  distinguished  part  you  have  taken  in 
the  establishment  of  peace  based  upon  principles  essential  to 
the  permanent  welfare  and  tranquillity  of  the  Far  East. 

"MUTSUHITO." 

Meanwhile  the  press  of  the  world  had  been  no  less  com- 
plimentary than  its  rulers  and  all  other  men  of  public  note. 
We  must  remain  satisfied  to  let  a  few  extracts  from  papers 
near  at  hand  speak  here  for  all.  While  the  negotiations  had 
as  yet  reached  only  half-way  in  their  course,  the  Review  of 
Reviews  said  editorially: 

"  We  citizens  of  the  United  States  of  America  have  just 
cause  to  congratulate  ourselves  upon  the  fact  that  America 
stands,  above  all  things,  for  peace  and  justice  throughout  the 
world.  The  American  President,  who  is  the  type  of  twen- 
tieth-century American  citizenship,  has  again  shown  how  an 
earnest,  peaceful  nation  can  brush  aside  the  traditions  of  a 
worn-out  diplomacy  when  a  great  issue  is  at  stake.  In  the 
most  irregular  of  ways,  and  in  defiance  of  all  the  rules  of  the 
diplomatic  game  as  played  for  centuries,  President  Rooseveltv 
with  the  approval  and  God-speed  of  the  civilized  world,  it  can 
be  confidently  asserted,  has  had  the  courage  to  take  a  hand  in 
the  proceedings  at  Portsmouth.  What  no  European  sover- 
eign would  have  dared  to  do — what  none  of  them  could  have 
done  without  giving  serious  offense — Mr.  Roosevelt  did.  He, 
we  are  forced  to  believe,  has  acted  as  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
neutral  world.  He  has  again  been  the  spokesman  of  its  power- 
ful peace  interests.  It  is  known  that  King  Edward  of  Eng- 


PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS  469 

land,  the  ally  of  Japan;  President  Loubet  of  France,  an  ally 
of  Russia,  and  Emperor  William  of  Germany,  all  of  these 
representing  the  great  powers  of  the  world  most  vitally  inter- 
ested in  the  conclusion  of  peace,  have  been  working  hard  and 
in  harmony  with  the  American  President  toward  that  end. 
It  was  the  American  chief  magistrate  who — at  the  suggestion 
and  with  the  approval,  it  is  generally  believed,  of  Europe- 
invited  Japan  and  Russia  to  confer  at  Portsmouth.  What 
more  appropriate  than  that  this  same  American  President, 
with  his  powerful  personality  and  the  tremendous  energy  and 
infinite  resources  of  his  vigorous  mind,  should  again  speak 
for  the  outside  world  when  the  principals  in  the  great  dip- 
lomatic duel  had  exhausted  their  resources?" 

And  when  his  intervention  had  succeeded,  the  daily 
press  of  all  shades  of  political  opinion  reiterated,  often  even  in 
more  emphatic  language,  the  same  view.  Let  us  begin  with 
a  paper  that  has  frequently  censured  his  acts.  The  New  York 
Sun  of  August  3oth  among  other  things  said: 

"  From  his  first  perception  of  the  opportunity  to  the  final 
accomplishment  of  his  purpose  Mr.  Roosevelt  never  waivered 
or  weakened,  never  lost  hope,  never  made  a  false  move  or  a 
blunder  of  any  sort,  never  once  overstepped  the  proprieties 
which  his  official  post  and  his  relations  with  the  two  govern- 
ments prescribed.  He  has  been  the  peacemaker  in  the  fullest 
sense  of  the  blessed  word.  The  conference  would  not  have 
occurred  but  for  him.  But  for  him  it  would  have  gone  to 
pieces  after  it  had  begun.  The  success  of  his  noble  enterprise 
is  one  of  the  most  splendid  examples  which  history  can  afford 
of  will  power,  character  and  straightforward  yet  not  unsophis- 
ticated altruism  working  efficiently  and  perseveringly  in 
one  individual  for  the  good  of  millions.  The  magnitude  of 
Mr.  Roosevelt's  achievement  will  grow  in  the  eyes  of  the  world 
as  the  years  go  by;  what  man-  by  a  single  seizure  of  oppor- 
tunity, and  the  consummately  skilful  use  of  it  when  seized, 
ever  earned  a  surer  title  to  the  most  honorable  fame?" 


470  PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

"  It  is  peace, "  the  New  York  Tribune  said;  "and  in  this 
culmination  of  an  international  incident  without  parallel  in 
human  history,  the  chief  credit  and  praise  are  due  to  the  chief 
peacemaker.  We  could  scarcely  speak  too  highly  of  the  four 
statesmen  who  have  been  in  momentous  conference  at  Ports- 
mouth, and  who  have  with  so  much  courtesy  to  their  oppo- 
nents and  so  much  loyalty  and  devotion  to  their  own  countries 
been  the  protagonists  of  their  respective  causes.  But  before 
and  above  even  those  distinguished  guests  of  the  nation  the 
world  will  regard  the  chivalrous  knight  errant  of  peace  who 
alone  has  made  their  meeting  and  their  achievements  possible. 
When  no  other  ruler  in  the  world  would  or  could  take  such  a 
step,  he  bravely  and  tactfully  assumed  the  initiative  in  bring- 
ing the  warring  powers  together.  It  was  he  who  brought 
those  four  plenipotentiaries  to  Portsmouth.  When  the  nego- 
tiations seemed  to  have  reached  a  deadlock  and  to  be  in  danger 
of  failure,  it  was  he  who  pressed  the  benevolent  factor  of  his 
own  masterful  personality  into  the  problem,  not  only  once, 
but  again  and  again,  until  by  an  exercise  of  single-handed 
influence  unsurpassed  in  history  he  practically  compelled 
success.  A  diplomatic  triumph  of  the  first  magnitude  was 
the  Russian  estimate  of  his  initial  achievement  in  securing 
the  peace  conference.  This  final  achievement  is  something 
more.  It  transcends  mere  diplomacy  and  is  a  triumph  for 
peace,  for  reason  and  for  humanity.  The  tidings  of  the  day 
are  peace,  and  the  peace  is  the  work  of  Theodore  Roose- 
velt." 

"Americans."  said  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  "have 
special  reasons  for  proud  rejoicings.  Their  country  has  been 
the  intermediary,  as  it  has  been  the  scene,  in  the  making  of 
this  great  peace,  and  their  President  has  pressed  on  undaunt- 
edly, when  all  the  world  faltered,  in  the  determination  to 
make  reason  and  religion  prevail  over  the  passions  of  war. 
It  is  a  proud  day  for  Theodore  Roosevelt,  and  every  lover  of 


PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS  471 

mankind  will  acclaim  his  sleepless  efforts  and  his  splendid 
triumph." 

"It  would  almost  seem,"  said  the  Brooklyn  Eagle,  "as 

though  the  envoys  had  been  held  together  by  the  sheer  force 

of  the  character  of  the  man  who  offered  up  that  invocation, 

so  resolute  was  Theodore  Roosevelt,  so  tenacious  of  the  pur- 

'pose  he  had  in  hand. 

:'The  end  has  justified  his  means,  whatever  they  may 
have  been.  The  end  consigns  him  to  a  place  in  history,  con- 
signs him  to  a  category  almost  all,  if  not  absolutely  all,  his 
own. 

"  Never  will  it  be  given  to  a  man  to  undertake  a  task  of 
greater  magnitude,  to  traverse  a  path  beset  with  greater 
difficulties.  There  was  almost  derision  at  the  beginning. 
There  were  those  who  ridiculed. 

"  Difficulties  seemed  to  be  cumulative.  All  the  drift 
appeared  to  be  in  the  direction  of  the  hopeless,  but  the  man 
never  wavered.  The  one  unalterable,  determined  factor 
throughout  has  been  the  President. 

"  He  has  triumphed.  He  has  reaped  a  reward  beyond  the 
possibility  of  calculation.  He  has  sheathed  the  swords  of 
a  million  men.  For  that  he  will  have  monuments  hereafter. " 

"In  apportioning  the  praise  and  the  glory,"  said  the 
New  York  Times,  "  it  becomes  us  to  be  moderate  in  the  allot- 
ment of  the  share  belonging  to  Mr.  Roosevelt.  But  we  see  no 
reason  why  foreigners  should  restrain  themselves.  It  is 
really  a  matter  of  very  deep  pride  with  us  that  this  treaty  is 
to  be  signed  upon  our  soil,  and  that  the  initiative  in  the  pro- 
ceedings which  led  to  it  was  taken  by  Mr.  Roosevelt.  It  is 
now  seen  that  his  invitation  was  not  premature;  it  was  sent 
at  the  precise  lucky  moment.  It  is  seen,  too,  that  his  urgent 
intercessions  were  not  overdone,  though  in  the  case  of  any 
other  head  of  a  great  nation  it  would  have  been  called  over- 
doing. The  world  over,  it  was  known  that  Mr.  Roosevelt's 


472  PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

motives  were  the  noblest,  and  that  they  were  entirely  disin- 
terested. He  had  no  other  thought  than  to  bring  about  a 
'  firm  and  lasting  peace. '  He  has  succeeded  so  well  that  if  any 
should  choose  to  call  it  the  Peace  of  Roosevelt  the  answering 
smile  would  be  rather  more  than  half  approving.  One  such 
great  act  is  enough  to  ennoble  and  give  distinction  to  any 
human  life. " 

"Nobody  can  deny,"  said  the  New  York  Staats-Zeitung, 
"that  Theodore  Roosevelt  has  achieved  a  great  triumph  by 
accomplishing  the  agreement  between  Japan  and  Russia. 
Whatever  honest  differences  may  exist  as  to  his  views  and 
actions,  and  how  much  we  may  be  opposed  to  his  political 
opinions,  the  fact  remains  indisputable  that  he  deserves  the 
credit  of  having  brought  about  the  final  agreement  between 
the  two  parties.  Without  his  intervention  and  his  ceaseless 
efforts  the  conferences  would  have  ended  without  result,  and 
the  end  of  the  bloody  war  in  the  Far  East  is  due  to"his  personal 
labors  in  behalf  of  peace." 

"  It  was  '  unprecedented  meddling, '  if  you  will,  "  said  the 
Philadelphia  North  American',  "but  it  was  swift,  vigorous 
work,  and  work  as  tactful  as  it  was  swift  and  vigorous.  No 
one  can  doubt  that,  but  for  the  President,  the  conference 
would  have  adjourned  more  than  a  week  ago,  and  the  legions 
of  Linievitch  and  Oyama  would  now  be  at  each  other's  throats. 
No  one  can  compute  the  ensuing  calamitous  consequences. 

"  This,  then,  is  a  Roosevelt  peace — the  greatest  of  recon- 
ciliations caused  by  the  '  Man  with  the  Big  Stick' — the  quench- 
ing of  a  conflagration  by  '  a  human  firebrand. ' ' 

"Theodore  Roosevelt  a  World  Power,"  is  the  editorial 
caption  of  the  Philadelphia  Press,  which  said: 

"  Great  as  was  Bismarck's  work  in  securing  peace  at  the 
Berlin  Congress,  President  Roosevelt's  work  on  this  occasion 
is  greater  still.  He  called  the  conference.  Again  and  again 
he  has  saved  it  from  disaster.  At  the  end  he  secured  the 


TWO  HEROES  OF  THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  SEA  OF  JAPAN 

In  this  battle  Admiral  Rojestvensky  was  severely  wounded  and  taken  to  a  Japanese  Naval  Hos- 
pital.    Here  his  victor.  Admiral  Togo,  visited  him  and  congratulated  him  upon  his  brave  fight 


PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS  473 

concessions,  first  from  the  Czar  and  next  from  the  Mikado, 
which  made  peace  possible.  Without  President  Roosevelt 
war  would  have  been  resumed.  Single  handed  and  alone,  he 
has  changed  the  history  of  the  world  when  neither  nation  at 
war  asked  for  his  good  offices  nor  desired  them. 

"  Such  an  achievement  and  such  a  work  put  a  man  in  a 
class  apart.  He  becomes  in  himself  one  of  the  world's  greater 
forces,  to  be  reckoned  with  in  all  its  wider  affairs.  No  man's 
career  and  no  man's  future  can  be  regarded  in  the  same  light 
or  prove  the  same  after  such  supreme  success  in  the  most 
difficult  of  tasks  as  after  he  has  been  thus  triumphantly  tested 
by  the  arduous  greatness  of  things  done." 

"The  peace  conference,"  said  the  Philadelphia  Public 
Ledger,  "proved  a  natural  corollary  of  the  stupendous  and 
transcendently  important  events  it  considered;  it  furnishes 
history  a  new  chapter  in  diplomacy;  it  places  a  crown  of 
laurel  upon  the  brow  of  America's  great  President,  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  the  Pacificator;  it  enshrines  the  name  of  Japan 
freshly  in  the  hearts  of  all  lovers  of  peace,  all  friends  of  human- 
ity, for  her  final  acts  of  magnanimity  and  moderation,  which 
exalt  and  glorify  her  character  not  one  whit  less  than  her 
brilliant  and  heroic  achievements  in  war ....  No  achievement 
of  President  Roosevelt  will  endure  longer  or  bring  him  greatei 
fame  than  this.  He  has  won  his  way  to  the  forefront  as  the 
chief  personage  among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  not  by  bloody 
'deeds  upon  the  battlefield,  but  in  the  paths  of  peace,  so  that 
he  shall  emblazon  our  country's  history,  along  with  Lincoln 
the  Emancipator,  as  Roosevelt  the  Pacificator. ' ' 

"President  Roosevelt,"  accord'ng  to  the  Philadelphia 
Record  (Democrat),  "has  crowned  a  career  full  of  honor  and 
good  works  with  an  achievement  that  commands  the  respect 
and  homage  of  the  civilized  world.  His  name  is  on  every  lip. 
The  Holy  Father  at  Rome  thanks  God  for  the  President's 
splendid  courage;  Kaiser  Wilhelm  and  King  Edward  shower 


474  PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

him  with  congratulations,  and,  as  the  former  says,  the  -whole 
of  mankind  will  unite  in  thanking  him  for  his  untiring  and  now 
happily  successful  efforts  to  restore  peace  to  the  world.  The 
triumph  at  Portsmouth  was  Roosevelt's  above  all.  Other 
men  contributed  to  it,  but  he  bore  the  foremost  part.  In 
leading  to  a  peaceful  outcome  of  the  conference  he  has  wrought 
a  seeming  miracle  that  none  but  he  would  have  had  the  con- 
fidence and  the  indomitable  will  to  essay. ' ' 

"Peace  hath  her  victories  no  less  renowned  than  war;" 
and  of  these  President  Roosevelt  has  achieved  the  greatest 
yet  recorded  in  the  world's  annals. 

The  treaty  which  he  brought  about  was  not  long  in  reach- 
ing completion. 

The  final  meeting  of  the  conference  was  called  for  three 
o'clock,  September  5th,  and  the  momentous  document, 
engrossed  in  duplicate  (one  copy  in  English  and  one  in  French), 
was  signed  by  all  four  of  the  plenipotentiaries  at  3.47,  the 
protocol,  or  minutes  of  the  last  meeting,  when  peace  was 
decided  upon,  having  received  their  signatures  an  hour  and 
a  half  earlier.  At  3.50  peace  was  officially  proclaimed  by 
the  big  guns  in  the  navy  yard  with  an  ambassador's  salute, 
nineteen  shots ;  and  the  whistles  of  all  the  ships  in  the  harbor 
joined  in  the  din,  as  did  also  all  the  church  bells  of  Ports- 
mouth. With  a  hearty  good  will  the  envoys  emptied  their 
glasses  to  the  toast  of  eternal  friendship.  A  message  was 
hurried  to  the  Czar,  another  to  the  Mikado,  and  a  third  to 
President  Roosevelt.  Meanwhile  the  telegraph  wires  had 
flashed  to  all  the  world  that  the  peace  of  Portsmouth  was  an 
accomplished  fact,  while  the  marine  band,  outside  the  naval 
building  was  playing  an  exhilirating  march. 

At  the  toast-drinking  to  the  new  peace,  to  the  Emperors 
of  Russia  and  Japan,  to  President  Roosevelt  and  to  universal 
amity,  Baron  de  Rosen  was  the  first  to  break  the  silence. 
"We  have,"  he  said,  "just  signed  an  act  which  will  have 


PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS  475 

forever  a  place  in  the  annals  of  history.  It  is  not  for  us 
active  participants  in  the  conclusion  of  this  treaty  to  pass 
judgment  on  its  import  and  significance.  As  negotiators  on 
behalf  of  the  empire  of  Russia,  as  well  as  the  empire  of  Japan, 
we  may  with  tranquil  conscience  say  that  we  have  done  all 
that  was  in  our  power  in  order  to  bring  about  the  peace  for 
which  the  whole  civilized  world  was  longing.  As  plenipoten- 
tiaries of  Russia  we  fulfill  a  most  agreeable  duty  in  acknowl- 
edging that  in  negotiating  with  our  hitherto  adversaries,  and 
from  this  hour  our  friends,  we  have  been  dealing  with  true 
and  thorough  gentlemen  to  whom  we  are  happy  to  express 
our  high  esteem  and  personal  regard.  We  earnestly  hope  that 
friendly  relations  between  the  two  empires  will  henceforth 
be  firmly  established  and  we  trust  that  his  Excellency,  Baron 
Komura,  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  one  of  the  leading 
statesmen  of  his  country,  will  apply  to  the  strengthening  of 
these  relations  the  wide  experience  and  wise  statesmanship 
he  so  conspicuously  displayed  during  these  negotiations,  which 
have  now  been  so  auspiciously  concluded." 

•  Baron  Komura  replied  that  he  shared  entirely  the  views 
of  Baron  de  Rosen.  The  treaty  of  peace  which  they  had  just 
signed,  he  said,  was  in  the  interest  of  humanity  and  civiliza- 
tion, and  he  was  happy  to  believe  that  it  would  bring  about  a 
firm,  lasting  peace  between  two  neighboring  empires.  He 
added  that  it  would  always  be  pleasant  for  him  to  recall  that 
throughout  the  long  and  serious  negotiations,  which  they  have 
now  left  behind  them,  he  and  his  colleagues  had  invariably 
received  from  the  Russian  plenipotentiaries  the  highest 
courtesy  and  consideration,  and  finally  he  begged  to  assure 
the  Russian  plenipotentiaries  that  it  would  be  his  duty  as 
well  as  his  pleasure  to  do  everything  in  his  power  to  make 
the  treaty  in  fact  what  it  professes  to  be  in  words — a  treaty 
of  peace  and  amity. 

Shortly  after  the   toasting  and  luncheon  the   Russians 


476  PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

went  to  Christ  Episcopal  Church  to  take  part  in  a  thanks- 
giving service  in  their  own  rite,  conducted  by  the  Russian 
priests  of  St.  Nicholas'  Church,  New  York. 

The  full  text  of  the  treaty  is  too  long  for  reproduction 
here,  but  an  authoritative  abstract  of  it  conveys  an  adequate 
idea  of  its  scope.  It  opened  with  a  preamble  that  his  Majesty, 
the  Emperor  and  Autocrat  of  all  the  Russias,  and  his  Majesty, 
the  Emperor  of  Japan,  desiring  to  close  the  war  now  sub- 
sisting between  them  and  having  appointed  their  respective 
plenipotentiaries,  and  furnished  them  with  full  powers  which 
were  found  to  be  in  form,  have  come  to  an  agreement  on  a 
treaty  of  peace  and  arranged  in  articles  to  the  following  pur- 
port: 

Article  I.  Stipulates  for  the  re -establishment  of  peace 
and  friendship  between  the  sovereigns  of  the  two  empires  and 
between  the  subjects  of  Russia  and  Japan  respectively. 

Article  II.  His  Majesty,  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  recog- 
nizes the  preponderant  interest  from  political,  military  and 
economical  points  of  view  of  Japan  in  the  Empire  of  Korea 
and  stipulates  that  Russia  will  not  oppose  any  measures  for 
its  government  protection  or  control  that  Japan  will  deem 
necessary  to  take  in  Korea  in  conjunction  with  the  Korean 
Government,  but  Russian  subjects  and  Russian  enterprises 
are  to  enjoy  the  same  status  as  the  subjects  and  enterprises 
of  other  countries. 

Article  III.  It  is  mutually  agreed  that  the  territory  of 
Manchuria  be  simultaneously  evacuated  by  both  Russian 
and  Japanese  troops.  Both  countries  being  concerned  in 
this  evacuation,'  their  situations  being  absolutely  identical, 
all  rights  acquired  by  private  persons  and  companies  shall 
remain  intact. 

Article  IV.  The  rights  possessed  by  Russia  in  conformity 
with  the  lease  by  Russia  of  Port  Arthur  and  Dalny,  together 
with  the  lands  and  water  adjacent,  shall  pass  over  in  their 


477 

entirety  to  Japan,  but  the  properties  and  rights  of  Russian 
subjects   are   to   be   safeguarded   and  respected. 

Article  V.  The  Governments  of  Russia  and  Japan 
engage  themselves  reciprocally  not  to  put  any  obstacles  to 
the  general  measures  (which  shall  be  alike  for  all  nations) 
that  China  may  take  for  the  development  pf  the  commerce 
and  industry  of  Manchuria. 

Article  VI.  The  Manchurian  Railway  shall  be  operated 
jointly  between  Russia  and  Japan  at  Kouang-Tcheng-Tse. 
The  two  branch  lines  shall  be  employed  only  for  commercial 
md  industrial  purposes.  In  view  of  Russia  keeping  her 
branch  line  with  all  rights  acquired  by  her  convention  with 
China  for  the  construction  of  that  railway,  Japan  acquires 
the  mines  in  connection  with  such  branch  line  which  falls  to 
her.  However,  the  rights  of  private  parties  or  private  enter- 
prises are  to  be  respected.  Both  parties  to  this  treaty  remain 
absolutely  free  to  undertake  what  they  deem  fit  on  expro- 
priated ground. 

Article  VII.  Russia  and  Japan  engage  themselves  to 
make  a  conjunction  of  the  two  branch  lines  which  they  own 
at  Kouang-Tcheng-Tse. 

Article  VIII.  It  is  agreed  that  the  branch  lines  of  the 
Manchurian  Railway  shall  be  worked  with  a  view  to  assure 
commercial  traffic  between  them  without  obstruction. 

Article  IX.     Russia  cedes  to  Japan  the  southern  part  of; 
Sakhalin  Island  as  far  north  as  the  fiftieth  degree  of  north 
latitude  together  with  the  islands  depending  thereon.     The 
right  of  free  navigation  is  assured  in  the  bays  of  La  Perouse 
and  Tartare. 

Article  X.  Recites  the  situation  of  Russian  subjects 
on  the  southern  part  of  Sakhalin  Island  and  stipulates  that 
Russian  colonists  there  shall  be  free  and  shall  have  the  right 
to  remain  without  changing  their  nationality.  Per  contra, 
the  Japanese  Government  shall  have  the  right  to  force  Russian 
convicts  to  leave  the  territory  which  is  ceded  to  her. 


478  PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

Article  XI.  Russia  engages  herself  to  make  an  agreement 
with  Japan  giving  to  Japanese  subjects  the  right  to  fish  in 
Russian  territorial  waters  of  the  Sea.  of  Japan,  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  and  Bering  Sea. 

Article  XII.  The  two  high  contracting  parties  engage 
themselves  to  renew  their  commercial  treaty  existing  between 
the  two  governments  prior  to  the  war  in  all  its  vigor  with  slight 
modifications  in  details  and  with  a  most  favored  nation  clause. 

Article  XIII.  Russia  and  Japan  reciprocally  engage 
to  restitute  their  prisoners  of  war  on  paying  the  real  cost  of 
keeping  the  same,  such  claim  for  cost  to  be  supported  by 
documents. 

Article  XIV.  This  peace  treaty  shall  be  drawn  up  in 
two  languages,  French  and  English,  the  French  text  being 
evidence  for  the  Russians,  and  the  English  text  for  the  Japan- 
ese. In  case  of  difficulty  of  interpretation  the  French  docu- 
ment is  to  be  final  evidence. 

Article  XV.  The  ratification  of  this  treaty  shall  be 
countersigned  by  the  sovereigns  of  the  two  States  within 
fifty  days  after  its  signature.  The  French  and  American 
Embassies  shall  be  intermediaries  between  the  Japanese  and 
Russian  Governments  to  announce  by  telegraph  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  treaty. 

Two  additional  articles  are  agreed  to  as  follows: 

Article  I.  The  evacuation  of  Manchuria  by  both  armies 
shall  be  complete  within  eighteen  months  from  the  signing 
of  the  treaty  beginning  with  the  retirement  of  troops  of  the 
first  line.  At  the  expiration  of  the  eighteen  months  the  two 
parties  will  only  be  able  to  leave  as  guards  for  the  railway 
fifteen  soldiers  per  kilometer. 

Article  II.  The  boundary  which  limits  the  parts  owned 
respectively '  by  Russia  and  Japan  in  the  Sakhalin  Islands 
shall  be  definitely  marked  off  on  the  spot  by  a  special  limit- 
ographic  commission. 


By  this  treaty  Japan  becomes  the  dominant  power  in 
Manchuria.  Both  Russians  and  Japs  must  evacuate  this 
great  territory,  but  Japan's  influence  will  be  exerted  in  the 
control  of  the  railway  from  Port  Arthur  to  Changtufu,  and  in 
the  occupation  of  the  Port  Arthur  stronghold. 

It  is  customary  to  imagine  Manchuria,  at  the  lower 
promontory  of  which  is  Port  Arthur,  to  be  a  small  place,  a 
mere  province  in  the  Chinese  Empire.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
it  is  a  very  large  province.  If  it  could  be  lifted  and  set  down 
within  the  borders  of  the  United  States  it  would  cover  all  the 
New  England  States,  together  with  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Delaware,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  Kentucky, 
Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois. 

Its  area  is  400,000  square  miles.  It  is  situated  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  China,  directly  south  of  the  Amur  or 
Great  River.  Well  does  that  stream  deserve  its  name,  for, 
emptying  into  the  Pacific  at  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  it  extends 
backward  through  nearly  one-third  of  the  vast  extent  of  Asia. 

On  the  east  Manchuria  is  bounded  by  a  little  strip  of 
Siberia  and  by  the  highlands  and  solitudes  which  separate  it 
from  Korea,  the  hermit  kingdom.  On  the  south  is  the  Yel- 
low Sea  and  westward  it  stretches  away  toward  Mongolia, 
without  natural  frontiers.  Its  boundary  in  that  direction  was 
once  marked  by  a  long  line  of  palisades,  erected  four  centuries 
ago,  to  keep  out  the  tribes  of  the  west.  These  palisades  have 
long  since  disappeared. 

Mukden,  the  chief  city  of  Manchuria,  is  500  miles  north- 
east of  Peking. 

There  are  12,000,000  people  in  Manchuria,  living  in  three 
provinces,  Shinking,  Kirin  and  Tsi-tsi-har.  The  first  is  the 
largest  and  best  known.  The  chief  city,  Mukden,  is  known 
as  the  "affluent  capital"  and  has  a  population  as  large  as 
Washington. 

Sakhalin,  on  the  division  of  which  Japan   and   Russia 


544*    (480)  PEACE  NEGOTIATIONS 

agreed,  is  an  island  nearly  700  miles  long,'  but  of  narrow  dimen- 
sions, stretching  from  Laperouse  Strait  northward  along  the 
coast  of  Siberia.  It  has  an  area  of  28,000  square  miles.  The 
sky  over  the  island  is  almost  always  clouded.  Its  eastern 
coast  is  either  icebound  or  strewn  with  ice  summer  and  winter. 

In  forests  and  coal,  however,  Sakhalin  is  rich.  There 
also  are  large  deposits  of  petroleum;  in  fact,  the  oil  regions 
are  said  to  be  richer  than  those  of  America. 

But  the  chief  wealth  of  the  island  is  the  fisheries.  The 
rivers  teem  with  salmon,  and  the  waters  .along  the  coast  with 
herring.  The  average  fish  output  of  the  island  yearly  is  in 
the  neighborhood  of  $1,500,000,  and  this  with  the  industry 
hardly  half  developed. 

From  another  point  of  view,  the  fish  industry  is  vital  to 
the  life  of  Japan.  It  becomes  a  question  of  no  fish,  no  rice; 
no  rice,  no  Japs.  Every  year  Sakhalin  sends  about  $1,000,000 
worth  of  herring  for  fertilizer  on  the  Japanese  rice  fields. 

Russian  occupation  of  Sakhalin  always  has  been  a  stand- 
ing menace  to  Japanese  agriculture.  It  was  the  case  of  Korea 
over  again,  only  with  herring  substituted  for  grain  as  the  issue. 

The  population  of  the  island  is  fewer  than  30,000,  includ- 
ing about  5000  convicts,  6000  exiles  and  2000  released  con- 
victs. The  native  population  consists  of  2000  Gilyaks,  who 
inhabit  the  southern  part,  and  about  2000  Ainos,  the  abor- 
igines of  the  island. 

The  plenipotentiaries  had  scarcely  begun  their  work 
at  Portsmouth  when,  on  August  i2th,  Japan  concluded  a 
new  treaty  with  England,  superseding  that  of  1901.  While 
the  former  instrument  bound  either  party  to  aid  the  other 
only  when  attacked  by  two  enemies  at  once,  the  latter  pro- 
vides for  this  action  against  one  enemy,  but  applies  only  to 
England's  interests  in  Asia.  This  treaty  is  a  strong  guarantee 
of  lasting  peace  in  the  Far  East. 

N.  B. — To  find  the  last  folio  number  in   this  volume  add  to  the  sum  of  numbered  pages,  480, 
sixty-four,  for  the  illustrations  which  have  been  included  in  the  book  but  not  numbered ; 


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